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Index of proposals
Learning Preferences and Readiness for Online
Learning
Dr Peter Smith
Deakin University
AUSTRALIA
Using a sample of 314 Australian university students McVay's (2000,
2001) Readiness for Online Learning questionnaire is tested for
its technical characteristics of reliability and factorability,
with results indicating the instrument has promise both for research
and for practice. The factor analysis identified a factor associated
with self-management of learning, and one of comfort with e-learning.
These factors are interpreted and discussed within a framework of
the broader literature on learning preferences associated with flexible
delivery and resource-based learning
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The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model:
Theoretical Cornerstone, Research, and Practical Applications
Professor Rita Dunn,
St John's University,
New York,
USA
Researchers at more than 120 different institutions of higher education
have reported at lest 800 studies conducted with the Dunn and Dunn
Learning-Style Model (www.learningstyles.net). Support for this
model's effectiveness was widespread. 1. The United States Center
for Research in Education that examined the dismal results of 20-years
of extensive federal funding (1970-1990) for Special Education (SPED)
students. It reported that the Dunn and Dunn Model was one of very
few programs that consistently increased SPED students' standardized
reading and mathematics achievement-test scores (Alberg et al.,
1992). 2. A meta-analysis of 42 experimental studies conducted at
13 different universities with the Dunn and Dunn Model between 1980-1990,
revealed that eight variables coded for each study produced 65 individual
effect sizes (Dunn, Griggs, Olson, Gorman, & Beasley, 1995). The
overall, unweighted group effect size value (r) was .384 and the
weighted effect size value was .353 with a mean difference (d) of
.755. Referring to the standard normal curve, this suggested that
students whose learning styles were accommodated could be expected
to achieve 75% of a standard deviation higher than students who
had not had their learning styles accommodated. Thus, matching students'
learning-styles with educational interventions compatible with their
preferences was beneficial to their academic achievement. 3. One
decade later, a second meta-analysis of 76 experimental studies
conducted with the Dunn and Dunn Model was completed by Lovelace
(2002). The total sample size (N) was 7,196 and the total number
of individual effect sizes was 168. Twenty-one dissertations came
from 17 universities other than the one at which this meta-analysis
was conducted; four dissertations were completed at the same university.
Overall data reported significantly higher test scores when the
Dunns' learning-style strategies were employed and compared with
traditional teaching, regardless of the university at which the
study was conducted. Most effect sizes were medium to large dependent
on the elements tested. Very few effect sizes were small, but some
elements affect students more than others. 4. Further support emerged
from the reversal of underachievers' poor academic performances
to statistically higher standardized-achievement test scores across
grade levels and across the United States (Braio, Dunn, Beasley,
Quinn, & Buchanan, 1997; Brunner & Majewski, 1990; Dunn, Bruno,
Sklar, & Beaudry, 1990; Dunn & DeBello, 1999; Dunn & Griggs, 2003;
Klavas, 1994; Stone, 1992). 5. In response to the New York State
Education Department's 1998 mandate that all SPED students must
pass the statewide Regents Examinations or forfeit graduation (Office
of Elementary, Middle, Secondary, and Continuing Education School
Executive's Bulletin, 2000), the Hamburg, New York Frontier High
School SPED teachers received extensive training in the Dunn and
Dunn Learning-Style Model. They then applied those strategies in
inclusion classrooms to accommodate the learning styles of all students,
but especially those of students with disabilities. After only one
year in Frontier's learning-style program, students with disabilities
demonstrated outstanding results on the New York State Regents Examinations.
Of the 1998-99 Special Education students who took the Regents Comprehensive
Language Exam, 89% passed. On both the Regents English and Regents
Chemistry Exams, 100% passed. In Regents U. S. History & Government,
90% passed, and in Regents Math, Course I, 96% passed. In Regents
Biology, 73.3 passed and 20% of these students passed the Regents
Math Course III course. 6. Because the Dunn and Dunn model is university,
rather than commercially based, it has had the advantage of many
professors and graduate students test and retest its tenets and
practices during the past three decades. Many of those investigators
have published individually and collaboratively in refereed research
and professional journals (Research with the Dunn & Dunn Model,
2003). For the intervention experiments conducted with this model
at St. John's University, its researchers have been the recipients
of 32 national and international awards for the quality of their
work (see Table 1). 7. Support also emerged from several researchers
who examined the construct validities and reliabilities of the Dunns'
diagnostic assessments in contrast with those of other learning-style
instruments (Curry, 1987; Miller & Edgar, 1994; O. A. Roberts, 1999).
8. Further support resulted from researchers who used the Dunn and
Dunn construct to increase achievement in engineering (Ingham, Ponce
Meza, & Price, 1998), corporate training (Ingham, 1991), law (Boyle
& Dunn, 1998; Boyle, Russo, & Lefkowitz, 2003; Russo, 2002a, b),
allied health (Miller & Dunn, 1997; Miller, Ostrow, Dunn, Beasley,
Geisert, & Nelson, 2000-2001), and nursing (Dunn & Griggs, 1998;
Lenehan, Dunn, Ingham, Murray, & Signer, 1994; O'Hare, 2002; Van
Wynen, 1997, 1998, 2001). 9. The establishment of 28 independent
university or corporate Centers internationally all of which use,
provide staff development in, and conduct research with this model.
Therefore, this manuscript briefly synthesizes the theoretical cornerstone
of this model, its research findings, and the instructional strategies
it suggests for teaching selected students based on their performance
in traditional schools and their identified learning-style traits.
--------------------
Learning Approaches: Examination Type, Discipline of Study
Swee Smith (Ms)
Deakin University,
Australia
Two hundred and forty-eight Australian university students participated
in a study that investigated the influence of assessment type and
discipline of study on students' learning approaches. Participants
(93 Psychology and 155 Business students)responded to the Study
Process Questionnaire (Biggs, 1987) in a context of preparation
for a hypothetical examination. The hypothetical examination is
in either a multiple-choice or an essay format. Results indicated
that assessment type had no significant influence on how students
approached their learning, while discipline did have significant
influence on student learning. These findings were explained with
reference to Hounsell's (1997) work and Becher's (1994) model on
disciplinary types.
--------------------
Real learning in real time: Constructivist principles in practice
Ahmed Ali
University of Wisconsin
USA
Learning styles that promote knowledge acquisition through reflection
on personal experiences, interaction, and collaboration with others
have become appealing in the last few decades. Students are provided
with opportunities to explore, discover and construct knowledge
that is relevant, applicable, and useful to them instead of passively
receiving information from teachers. Students no longer have to
receive prepackaged content but can actively contribute towards
constructing their own knowledge for real world activities. Among
the changing learning practices, constructivism has emerged as a
strong and significant learning theory that emphasizes student-centered
learning (Dalgarno, 2001). Though traditional teaching and learning
styles are still widespread, individual instructors and programs
have tried various techniques to meet the learning needs of their
students which were not being met by the traditional teaching methods
(Jonassen, 1991). Changes in the pedagogy focus on techniques that
promote students dynamic learning and engage students in the learning
and teaching processes. Students are moved from the periphery of
the learning process to being important collaborators. A two year
certificate program in a Mid-western university implemented a constructivist
style learning environment by creating a curriculum focused around
students participation in curriculum and course design, pedagogical
planning and practices, and course and program evaluation. The program
was a 30 quarter-hour undergraduate certificate program on global
issues, with a strong emphasis on real-world projects and problem-solving
skills. This multidisciplinary program was supported and coordinated
by the Colleges of Business, Communication, Engineering, and Arts
and Sciences. It prepared students for leadership and global issues.
Courses were not traditional classes with lectures and tests, but
involved project and problem-based learning, peer learning, student-led
teaching, field experiences, and group activities. Learning settings
included classrooms, the web, student homes, and distant field locations.
The program required students to live together in the same residential
building. When students simply receive and consume knowledge, as
is widely practiced, they fail to exploit their potential, and end
up becoming part of the reproduced graduates with limited real life
experiences. Constructivism allows students to experience learning
and reflect on their experiences. Some people may argue that applying
constructivist principles is impractical. This may be true if we
follow the radical constructivists views that constructivism cannot
work in structured learning environments. However, the theory can
be implemented if the learning environment is organized to facilitate
the application of constructivist styles without discarding parts
of the formal structure that is helpful. The program described in
this paper utilized the traditional formal structure to support
the implementation and application of constructivist teaching and
learning styles. A hybrid of different styles that do not conflict,
but instead complement one another, is a realistic way to deliver
instruction.
--------------------
Peer Collaboration in Synchronous Computer-Mediated Communication:
Promoting Discourse for Better Learning
Ahmed Ali
University of Wisconsin
USA
Instructional environments play significant roles in students
learning. The learning settings are as important as the roles of
the teachers and students. Facilities, space, and ergonomics can
help or hinder learning. A friendly and conducive learning atmosphere
can motivate students and support individual and/or collaborative
learning. Technology as an instructional tool and medium of communication
has influence on instructional styles in classrooms. For example,
teaching and learning in an electronic classroom is conducted differently
from a traditional chalkboard classroom. Technology implementation
in classrooms has diversified teaching and learning styles. Students
are no longer confined to the teacher s lectures only. Technology
resources, such as computers and the Internet, help to facilitate
student s control of learning and encourage interaction in the classroom
(Gokhale, 1995). The changing instructional styles have influenced
how learning is conducted in the classroom. The vast resources available
in an electronic classroom reduce a students dependence on the teacher.
Because of the communication facilities, students may ask for help
from one another. Electronic interactive communications provide
students with opportunities to explore ideas and work problems from
multiple perspectives. The presence of technologies such as the
Internet facilitates discussions and interaction. Students are motivated
to work because of the hands-on activities and the collective responsibility
they share. Having access to electronic resources is important in
collaboration. Unlike the traditional classroom, electronic classroom
provides students with access to all resources at one place and
time. The immediate application of knowledge is helpful to students.
E-classrooms allow for the practical application of skills developed.
Thus, there is a nexus between classroom knowledge and real-world
application of the knowledge. Synchronous communication services
such as chat and instant messaging can promote dialogue and discourse.
The advantage of chatting is that it provides anonymity for shy
students. Combining electronic and face-to-face collaboration in
the same setting provides students with opportunities for their
preferred style for collaboration. Students who might be less productive
in face-to-face group discussions will be able to contribute productively
to group work by participating actively in an electronic discussion,
and vice versa. The environment for collaboration in an e-classroom
can be counterproductive if students misuse the resources for activities
not related to their respective class activities. Synchronous communication
such as chat and instant messaging can be disorganized, unstructured
and difficult to document. Discourse recording in real-time computer-mediated
communication is not simple or user-friendly. The digital resource
saturation in one room can reduce the efficiency of the resources.
For example, a sluggish network or freezing and crashing computers
can slow down students activities, and this can cause students to
spend more time on technical rather than content issues. E-classrooms
are developed with a mindset for a technology lab even if they are
meant to be for instruction. Students must first acquire technical
skills needed to use the services and facilities before using the
services for collaboration and learning. This becomes an add-on
to the students learning. Collaboration is an important strategy
for promoting learning by encouraging students to participate and
construct knowledge. Collaboration provides students with an opportunity
to explore their potential, and develop problem solving and critical
thinking skills as an individual and as a group member. The medium
of communication such as face-to-face and/or online, synchronous
and/or asynchronous communication can influence the effects of collaborative
learning. Electronic classrooms facilitate collaboration, and access
to various communication technologies provides students with options
for collaboration. E-classrooms allow for a combination of face-to-face
and online collaboration.
--------------------
The Effect of Brain Hemisphericity and Perceptual
Learning Styles on the Use of Learning Strategies
Dr Jamila Suliman Khanji
Ministry of Education
United Arab Emirates
The Barsch Learning Styles Inventory (BLSI) (Barsch, 1994), the
Brain Dominance Inventory (BDI) (Davis, 1994) and the Strategy Inventory
for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1989 and Oxford, 1990), were
first translated into Arabic and then used in a study of 348 female
students from the United Arab Emirates. The results of the perceptual
style (visual, auditory, tactile) and brain dominance (right brain,
left brain or the whole brain) subjects are presented in details
and used to categorize groups for the factor analysis of the strategy
data in this study. A nine-factor, principal component, Varimax
(oblique) solution to the SILL data was used as a statistical analysis
approach to facilitate comparison between the results of the strategy
data of this study and the outcome of a large meta-study done by
Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995), in which they examined the factor
structures of six data sets generated by six different researchers
who had used the SILL on subjects from various cultures and backgrounds.
In the present study, the factors generated from the 348 students
and those generated from sub-groups on the basis of their perceptual
style and brain dominance are compared to each other and to the
results quoted in Oxford and Burry (1995). All solutions accounted
for more than 50% of the variance in the different data sets which
was taken to indicate that more than one half of the language LSs'
use is represented by items on the identified SILL factors of these
solutions. The result of the 348 subjects as one group tends to
reflect the original classification of the SILL. However, when subjects
are grouped according to their perceptual and brain dominance, the
analytic factors are shown to be distinctly different for the different
groups. For example, the right-brainers: factor 1 consisted of meta-cognitive
LSs and factor 2 consisted of cognitive LS. These two factors are
reversed in the case of the left-brain dominance. Similar remarks
apply to the analytic factors derived from the data sets according
to the subjects’ perceptual style. The main thesis of Oxford
and Burry (1995) is that cultural differences constitute the underlying
cause for differences in the structure of the principal factors.
However, the principal component analysis of the present study data,
performed on categories classified according to their learning styles,
produces different, but distinct, factors .It could, then, be argued
that these analytic factors are attributable to the basic, yet distinctive,
learning style subsets within the same study (cultural) group. This
conclusion indicates that differences in the structure of the principal
factors resulting from analyzing the SILL's data are, in all probability,
learning style, rather than cultural, dependent. The effort to promote
language learning across population groups might, therefore, be
served by similar studies that utilize these analytic factors to
explore/quantify the differences (if and whenever they exist) between
subjects who possess the same learning style but who belong to different
cultural groups. This is likely to further our understanding of
the manner in which students from different cultural backgrounds
utilize/prioritize LSs.
--------------------
Cognitive style, dyslexia and mode of instruction in higher education.
Tilly Mortimore
ESRC PhD Student
University of Cardiff
This research project examines the relationship between dyslexia
and learning style in male university students and investigates
the extent to which different ways of presenting information might
affect the levels of success experienced at a typical university
lecture task. Its focus is to determine the impact dyslexia, cognitive
style and mode of presentation might have upon success levels and,
through the use of questionnaire and interviews, their effect upon
the quality, positive or negative, of the student's learning experiences
at university. Research Questions The study posed the following
questions: 1. Is dyslexia associated with a predominant cognitive
style? 2. Is variation in cognitive style associated with differences
in the ability to assimilate information from the lecture form of
presentation? Is the pattern equivalent for students with and without
dyslexia? 3. What is the relationship between the way in which information
is presented and the successful comprehension and retention of that
information? How does cognitive style and dyslexia impact upon this
relationship? 4. What are the implications of the findings for teaching
and support practices in higher education? Methodology Sixty dyslexic
and sixty non-dyslexic male students were recruited from fourteen
HE institutions. They were selected from a wide range of disciplines
and care was taken to match the spread of ages and subjects across
the dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups. Cognitive style was measured
by the Cognitive Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991); the students watched
a short videoed lecture presented with or without graphic reinforcers;
students filled out and discussed a questionnaire as to learning
experiences and preferences and completed a task booklet testing
their recall of the lecture information. Students discussed the
implications of the result of the Cognitive Style Analysis for their
approaches to study at University. Results and Discussion Results
of the students' performances on the test and the questionnaire
responses are presented. The implications of the results for teaching
and support procedures are discussed.
--------------------
Toward Integrated and Revised
Learning Styles Theory supported by Web and Multimedia Technologies
Bozidar Klicek
University of Zagreb, Croatia
This paper describes an approach towards integration
and revision of different learning style theories. Advanced uses
of learning technologies need a very comprehensive and precise understanding
of learning processes. Present theories describe learning only partially,
listing advantages, having many similarities in their approaches
and orientation towards the classical way of teaching. Several learning
theories are investigated, such as Kolb's experimental model, the
theory of multiple intelligences, Myers-Briggs type indicator, visual-auditory-kynestetical
model, VARK learning styles inventory, modality strengths model,
learning styles inventory, and index of learning styles (ILS). In
order to investigate the possibility of grouping students according
to different learning styles and different technology preferences,
a survey was conducted. The same group of students (N=500) was tested
using a multi-standard learning style questionnaire, with additional
questions oriented towards different technologies that support today's
learning. Analyzed survey results explain some inter-connections
among present theories, which could serve as an initial basis for
integrating different approaches, as well as for revising the role
of classical tools vs. multimedia and Web tools. A decision tree
and neural networks using these results were made in order to test
the dependency among learning styles and technology preferences.
A significant inter-dependence of learning styles and technology
preferences was found. An experimental Web multimedia educational
system is suggested, enabling detailed empirical investigation of
the learning process. This system is based on: a) semantic network
learners model, b) assembled multimedia and Web technologies (animation,
texts, sound, visual content, video, forum and chat communication,
knowledge testing, etc.), c) support teachers and those familiarizing
themselves with the learning process, d) comprehensive empirical
research with detailed reports on the monitoring of the learning
process of a particular large group of students. Initial research
results show some important findings concerning knowledge comprehension
and confirmation, main characteristics of the learning process,
key entities and their roles, as well as adequate technologies needed
to support each learning style. Due to the complexity of the learning
process, we consider such approach to be an important step towards
creating an integrated and revised theory of learning styles. The
suggested Web multimedia educational system has been experimentally
implemented as a part of the academic course of intelligent systems,
through the Educational Repository for Intelligent Systems (ERIS)
project. Besides being used for teaching the topics in question,
such experimental system trains students to use different computer
technologies, and offers a wide range of research instruments that
can be used for further investigation of the learning process. The
list of further promising researches is proposed and described.
--------------------
Interactive relationship between learner attributes
and participation in web based courses
Margaret Anderson
Psychology dept., Suny Cortland, New York
Distance education, especially asynchronous Web based,
is one of the fastest growing sectors of education today. This growth
is due to its accessibility by a wide range of individuals in different
locations, with different schedules, commitments and ability levels.
Little research has yet been devoted to studying which individuals
succeed with this new educational format and, more importantly,
how best to accommodate students who may not innately possess the
attributes necessary to thrive in this new environment. There is
some information related to the demographic profile of successful
distance students. However, to date there is little documentation
of the interaction between specific cognitive components and performance
in an asynchronous distance course. Similarly, there is no prescription
for the pedagogical elements that need to be included in a distance
course in order to ensure that individuals with diverse approaches
to learning are all able to gain the most benefit from this new
educational environment. Probably the most interesting empirical
question related to participation in Web based courses is the extent
to which an individual's approach to learning can actually be modified
as a result of participation in the course itself. The present paper
addresses three interrelated questions. First, is there a relationship
between performance in an asynchronous distance course and student's
learning style, metacognition and self-directed approach to learning?
Second, does taking an asynchronous distance course affect the student's
learning style, metacognitive abilities and self-direction for learning?
Third, which elements of the course interact specifically with the
various learning attributes? Based on existing research from related
areas I have created an interactive model of the learner and the
impact of participation in Web based courses on academic performance.
I predict which learner characteristics are most likely to facilitate
performance in a Web based course, and indicate the importance of
certain preexisting experiential elements. Throughout the model,
the crucial element becomes understanding the recursive interaction
between the student, the course and the outcome measures. The issue
facing distance educators is not just the impact of the medium or
the individual characteristics of the successful learner. The issue
is to determine the significance of the interaction between the
two. I would like to have the opportunity to present this model
to your conference participants in order to solicit their feedback
on the model. In particular I welcome the opportunity to explore
possible instruments that could be used to validate this model.
--------------------
Learning Style Theory and Computer Mediated Communication
Hilary Cunningham-Atkins & David Moore Leeds Metropolitan University
& David Hobbs, Bradford University
Computer mediated communication (CMC) is becoming a popular tool
in tertiary education establishments for both distance and campus-based
students. However, whilst CMC offers many advantages, especially
to distance students, there are concerns about the low levels of
active participation in conferences. The authors have argued elsewhere
[Atkins et al. 2001] that one of the causes of low participation
may be an incompatibility between students' learning style and the
style imposed by CMC, and proposed that Riding's Cognitive Styles
Analysis be used in an empirical study of the educational use of
CMC. This paper reports on the preliminary findings of such a study
involving students from three courses run by the British Open University.
Riding's verbal-imagery style dimension describes the way in which
individuals represent knowledge, in mental pictures or in words.
Intuitively it was felt that this would be the dimension of greatest
importance in the text-based environment of CMC and that students
with a score at the verbaliser end of the dimension would feel most
at home in the environment. However, contrary to these expectations,
it would appear from our study that it is the students who fall
at the imager end of the dimension who are more likely to thrive
in the CMC conferences. In general, however, statistical analysis
of the data does not suggest any strong influence of learning style
on student participation in the conferences. However, our data does
suggest a link between certain learning styles and course completion
and also that the interaction of different styles within a group,
as described by Riding & Rayner's [1998] team roles, may have an
indirect influence on the completion of educational tasks when utilising
CMC. References Atkins, H., Moore, D. and Hobbs, D. (2001) Learning
Style Theory and Computer Mediated Communication. In: Proceedings
of ED MEDIA 2001, June 25-30 2001, Tampere, Finland. Riding, R.
and Rayner, S. (1998) Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies:
Understanding Style Differences in Learning and Behaviour, London,
David Fulton.
--------------------
The relationship between learning style
preference, attitude to learning, appropriate prior knowledge and
achievement in the context of computer aided learning in electronics
Stephanie Atkinson
Sunderland University, UK
This paper is concerned with comparing the relationship between
an individual s learning style preference, attitude to using computers
for learning, level of appropriate prior computing and electronics
knowledge, and achievement, in the context of computer aided learning
(CAL). The results of a small-scale study involving thirty-two students
(eighteen male and fourteen female) studying their first electronics
module during an Initial Teacher Training (ITT) Design and Technology
degree programme at a University in NE England are reported. Data
concerning cognitive style was collected using a well-established
Cognitive Style Analysis (Riding, 1991), attitude to CAL was established
using a 58 item summated rating scale. A questionnaire ascertained
the prior electronic knowledge and computing skills of the sample,
whilst levels of achievement were provided by a post-test embedded
in the CAL package that was the main teaching strategy utilised
in the module under question. The collected data indicated that
those students who had no electronics knowledge at the start of
the module were significantly less positive in their attitude to
using CAL in their quest for knowledge than those with previous
electronics experience. The data also suggested that the level of
computing skill prior to starting the course may be more important
to achieving a high mark for electronics in this CAL situation than
the level of previous electronics knowledge appeared to be. The
data did support the belief that there was a different relationship
between a student s attitude to CAL and their ability to achieve
using such learning materials, depending upon their preferred learning
style. On one cognitive style dimension Imagers had the most positive
attitude and Verbalisers had the least positive attitude, whilst
on the other dimension Wholists were the least positive and Intermediates
at the centre of the dimension were the most positive. As far as
achievement was concerned Intermediates followed the expected pattern
and achieved the highest mean mark, whilst Wholists achieved the
lowest score. However, on the other dimension Verbalsiers who had
the poorest attitude to CAL actually achieved the highest mark in
the electronic test and Bimodals at the centre of the dimension
achieved the lowest mean mark. Possible reasons for these results
are discussed in the paper. Unfortunately the imbalance in student
numbers in the three categories on one cognitive style dimension
may have skewed some results. It is therefore the intention of the
researchers to continue to collect data from subsequent groups of
students to see if further data will replicate these results and
add credence to the interesting findings obtained so far in this
study.
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Are individual learners disadvantaged
by the use of Computer-Adaptive Testing in Higher Education?
Trevor Barker & Mariana Lilley, University of Hertfordshire
This paper presents ongoing research at the University of Hertfordshire
on the use of computer-adaptive tests in Higher Education. Computer
Adaptive tests are a form of computer-based testing where the difficulty
of the test is tailored to the individual learner. In general terms,
the test starts with a question of medium difficulty. If the student
answers the question correctly, a more difficult question is next
presented. Conversely, if the question is answered incorrectly,
an easier question follows. The statistical process which supports
the selection of the next question is based on Item-Response Theory
(IRT). The main purpose of CAT is to present the student with questions
that are challenging for his or her level of ability. Questions
that reflect a student's skills provide more information about the
student and motivate more than those that are either too difficult
or too easy. One of the consequences of the dynamic selection of
questions is that no two student will answer the same set of questions.
This may bring both advantages and disadvantages. Although students
may feel motivated, some students may consider that the fairness
of the test is jeopardised, since the set of test questions is not
the same for all participants. One student may answer the same number
of questions correctly as another student, yet achieve a lower level,
and hence a lower grade. It is therefore important to be sure that
students are not disadvantaged by the CAT approach. The research
described in this paper therefore relates to the design, development
and evaluation of computer-adaptive testing software for a Visual
Basic programming course at the University of Hertfordshire in a
real educational context. In previous research, academic staff and
students evaluated the CAT software introduced here. The academic
staff performed an expert evaluation of the software to ensure that
it was usable and pedagogically sound. A group of international
students compared the software with a traditional computer based
test, and took part in a focus group session. During this session,
students discussed issues related to computer-adaptive tests, ranging
from their perception that very easy tests are “meaningless”
to their insights into the fairness of such computer-assisted assessments.
In this research, 128 second year computer programming students
at the University of Hertfordshire took the CAT test as part of
their normal coursework assessment. This assessment consisted of
two theory tests each having a traditional CBT component and CAT
component and off-computer project work. Performance on the CAT
and CBT parts of the course was compared, using an Analysis of Variance
and Pearson’s correlation. The results of this suggested that
the CAT test was a better measure of learner ability than the CBT
component. We also compared the CAT and CBT tests with the off-computer
assessments. We were able to conclude from this that the CAT approach
was a fair measure of learner ability. Students were also measured
using Riding’s CSA test. We present the results of this test
and discuss some interesting differences in learner performance
related to individual cognitive style.
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Gender Differences in the Use of Digital Games
Phil p Bonanno
University of Malta
This paper reports work in progress investigating gender differences
in the use of digital games amongst advanced level Biology students.
It is an elaboration on previous work exploring the relationship
between cognitive style and academic performance in Maltese students
taking Biology at advanced level (Bonanno 2001). In this work the
Cognitive Style of 581 (212 males and 369 females) advanced Biology
students, as determined by the Cognitive Style Analysis (CSA) administered
(Riding, 1991), was correlated with their academic performance in
five different subjects. Pearson s Correlation showed that the Wholist-Analytic
dimension, the Verbal-Imagery dimension and gender were not correlated.
Regression Analysis showed that none of the style dimension combinations
proved to have significant effect on performance in any of the subjects.
But gender proved to be a stronger determinant in performance. These
results were interpreted from a Cognitive Neuroscience perspective.
Numerous studies consistently found gender differences in language
and visuospatial skills. Female superiority is seen on tests of
both receptive and productive language, and on more complex tasks
such as making analogies and creative writing. Males have an advantage
in visuospatial reasoning being more adept at performing disembedding
and internal spatial transformations required by a task. In view
of these results and the constantly reported gender difference in
the use of digital games, this paper describes the initial stage
of an investigation about gender-determined propensities to digital
media. Different studies claim that males dedicate more time to
playing digital games than female students. A marked emphasis on
the use of particular game genres by the different sexes is also
reported. This reported phenomenon is investigated within the context
of Maltese students taking advanced Biology. Using a questionnaire
students were asked about the time they spend playing digital games,
their preferred platform and their preferred games. Data is being
analysed to establish gender differences in the time spent on playing
digital games, the preferred platform, the most popular digital
games amongst males and female students, and the preferred game
genre. The results will be interpreted from a Cognitive Neuroscience
perspective. Suggestions will be made for possible integration of
digital games in science instruction.
--------------------
Learning Styles: An Overview of Theories, Models and Measures
Simon Cassidy, University of Salford
Although its origins have been traced back much further, research
in the area of learning styles has been active for at a conservative
estimate around three decades. During that period the intensity
of activity has varied, with recent years seeing a particularly
marked upturn in the number of researchers working in the area.
Also of note is the variety of disciplines from which the research
is emerging. Increasingly, research in the area of learning style
is being conducted in domains outside psychology the discipline
from where many of the central concepts and theories originate.
These domains include medical and health care training, management,
industry, vocational training and a vast range of settings and levels
in the field of education. It is of little wonder that applications
of these concepts are so wide ranging given the centrality of learning
and how best to do it to almost every aspect of life. As a consequence
of the quantity of research, the diversity of the disciplines and
domains in which the research is conducted and the varied aims of
the research, the topic has become fragmented and disparate. This
is almost certainly how it must appear to researchers new to the
area, with its complexities and convolutions difficult to easily
comprehend and assimilate. As such, it is perhaps timely to present
an account of the central themes and issues surrounding learning
styles and to consider the instruments available for the measurement
of style. The paper aims to provide such an account, attempting
to clarify common areas of ambiguity and in particular issues surrounding
measurement and appropriate instruments. It aims to bring together
necessary components of the area in such a way as to allow for a
broader appreciation of learning styles and to inform regarding
possible tools for measurement. It is anticipated that such an account
will promote research in the field by presenting it as more accessible
and by developing a greater appreciation for the area across disciplines
and for researchers new to the area.
--------------------
The Influence of Culture on Learning Styles
Zarina Charlesworth, Glion Institute of Higher Education
Despite a considerable body of scholarly research on learning styles,
the literature that investigates the influence of culture on learning
styles is relatively sparse. In light of the increasing internationalisation
in institutes of higher education this project aims to examine the
learning styles and strategies of students of diverse cultural backgrounds
enrolled in an international management programme. A two-stage pilot
study is being conducted using a sample of eighty 3rd year degree
students studying in a Swiss institute of higher education. Focus
group research, using groups split into three cultural subsets,
indicates that strategies for learning are conditioned by socio-cultural
factors. In the second stage a revised version of the Honey and
Mumford Learning Style Questionnaire (1986, 1992) is administered
to a population of multi-cultural students. Preliminary findings
suggest that the diversity of learning styles likely to be found
in the classroom is accentuated in the case of international cohorts.
These findings are discussed in the context of the development and
delivery of international degree level management programmes.
--------------------
The Relationship between students' cognitive
styles and their learning difficulties in Higher Education
Mary Davis, Swansea Institute of Higher Education
"The words or the language, as they are written or spoken, do not
seem to play any role in my mechanism of thought." In Einstein's
description of his thought processes, we are given an insight into
the experience of the visual thinker for whom words are inadequate
symbolic representations of both the concrete world and of conceptual
thought. This paper is based on empirical research, supported by
theory, in the relationship between students' cognitive styles and
the learning difficulties they experience in higher education. For
Einstein, the 'logical construction' of thought in words was arrived
at only after a process of visualisation, "in more or less clear
images". He describes how conventional words or other signs had
"to be sought for laboriously only in a secondary stage…." This
offers a useful model for understanding the nature of the difficulties
of those students who struggle with the written word: a student
whose mode of learning relies on visual/spatial imaging (and I will
be focusing particularly on those studying in art and design), may
be disadvantaged in an environment which, traditionally, measures
the performance of its students through tasks which are language
based and linear. This dichotomy, between a student's cognitive
style which is right brain dominant and teaching methods which favour
left-brained learners, forms the basis of much of my work as a study
support and dyslexia support tutor. The work in accelerated learning
techniques has been developed from the link established between
hemispherical dominance and learning styles. Alongside this, Gardner's
identification and categorisation of intelligences is in keeping
with the idea that, while for some learners, their strengths may,
for example, lie in the left hemispheric realm of language, they
have within them the capacity to acquire and develop those abilities
which are associated with the right hemisphere, for example, visual
imaging. These ideas have pedagogical implications which, at Swansea
Institute, we are addressing through the programme of staff development
which I am currently delivering. Its aims and objectives are to
develop teaching and learning strategies which are orientated towards
students' learning styles. Staff are supported in this by a computerised
screening package which our first year cohorts sit early in the
first semester. QuickScan gives a comprehensive report on the student's
individual style, with detailed examples of related learning strategies.
It also identifies study skills' needs and indicators of dyslexia.
The package offers a database of information on correlations between
students' learning styles, study skills needs and a possible dyslexic
profile. The correlations can be extended across subject areas -
for example, we might expect students studying art and design to
be visual spatial learners and for there to be higher numbers of
dyslexic students studying creative subjects. In the context of
the relationship between students' cognitive styles and learning
difficulties, the results of this study will be set alongside the
work done with students in study support and dyslexia support as
the basis for discussion of their implications for current forms
of assessment.
--------------------
Learning style awareness: why would it work? In search
for a theoretical explanation for a self-evident conception.
Ella Desmedt, Ghent University
Educational applications of learning styles are traditionally
based on ATI-based matching guidelines. This practice has been criticised
for different reasons. Interventions to promote awareness of and
reflection on one s own learning style have been put forward as
a valuable alternative. That learning style awareness has a positive
effect on the learning process indeed seems to be a self-evident
conception. Empirical research on this topic is starting to emerge.
Yet no attempts have been made to explain why this could be a reasonable
hypothesis. In this paper, we try to solve this black-box problem
by proposing a theoretical process-model. The model builds on cognitive
psychology, research on metacognition and self-regulated learning,
and on theory about self-concept. It hypothesises that receiving
information about learning styles in general enhances metacognitive
knowledge about the person factor in learning. Reflection on and
awareness of one s own learning style contributes to the complexity
and accuracy of the self-concept. The learning style framework thus
provides a language that enables verbal expression and representation
of individual differences in learning on the one hand, and of the
own strengths and weaknesses on the other. As a result of these
intertwined developments, the student can engage in more precise
metacognitive monitoring, which in turn enhances his ability to
self-regulate. However, thinking about a theoretical explanation
just as well generates reasons why learning style awareness and
reflection would not generate surplus value. The likelihood of this
hypothesis will be discussed in conclusion.
--------------------
Comparing the learning styles of medicine
and pedagogical sciences students
Ella Desmedt, Ghent University
A central conception in learning styles theory is that there is
a relationship between learning style and academic discipline. One
could even argue that this match makes up a central aspect of the
construct validity of the learning style concept. Whether learning
style determines academic career choice or academic career forms
a particular learning style remains unclear. It is however generally
accepted that both processes exercise mutual influence. In this
paper we will compare the learning styles of the freshman medicine
(N = 132) and pedagogical sciences (N = 190) students at Ghent University.
Learning styles are operationalised in two ways. We used Witkin
s GEFT (cognitive style) and Kolb s LSI (learning style). These
instruments were administered from the medicine students at the
beginning of the academic year 2002-2003 as a pre-test in a broader
intervention study. From the first analyses of these data, we learned
that this group is very homogeneous. All the students scored very
high on the field-independence dimension of the GEFT. Some exceptional
cases not to mention, they all displayed a clear preference for
abstract conceptualisation. Assimilating and converging were the
dominant learning styles in this group. To be able to contrast these
results, the instruments were also administered from the pedagogical
sciences students, a clearly distinct group. The following hypotheses
will be tested. They are derived from theory and from information
about the intake of students in both faculties. - The medicine students
are more field independent than the pedagogical sciences students.
- The medicine students have a stronger preference for abstract
conceptualisation than the pedagogical sciences students. - The
medicine students have a stronger preference for reflective observation
than the pedagogical sciences students. - The pedagogical sciences
group is more heterogeneous than the medicine group: all learning
styles are more equally represented. The implications of the results
for the construct validity of the learning style concept will be
discussed.
--------------------
Approaches to learning and evaluation of teaching quality
Ege Diseth, University of Bergen
Research on individual differences in learning motives and learning
strategies, conceptualised as Approaches to Learning (ATL), may
be improved if we also consider the importance of how the students
perceive their learning context. On way of addressing this issue,
is to explore how the students evaluate and experience different
aspects of the teaching quality, and to compare this with their
score on inventories measuring ATL. Given that the same teaching
is evaluated differently by students, it is possible that the students
individual characteristics might predict how they perceive and evaluate
the teaching quality. Furthermore, the relative contribution of
approaches to learning and evaluation of teaching quality as predictors
of academic achievement may shed light on the external aspects of
construct validity, both for evaluation inventories and for inventories
measuring ATL. Such findings may be useful in the design of future
evaluation inventories and as a tool for the improvement of teaching
quality. In order to investigate these issues, results from 250
undergraduate psychology students and 140 law students were collected.
These students completed the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory
for Students (ASSIST) and a newly developed inventory measuring
different aspects of the teaching quality, such as lecturer presentation,
lecturer enthusiasm, workload of the curriculum, etc. In addition,
the students reported the amount of time they spent on diverse study
activities during one typical week of studying, and how well they
thought they would perform on the forthcoming exam. This study also
gave the opportunity to collect the students examination grade at
the end of the semester. Principal component analysis of the inventory
measuring evaluation of teaching quality produced 6 factors. A subsequent
confirmatory factor analysis showed that these 6 factors may be
accounted for by one higher order factor. Structural equation modelling
showed that approaches to learning moderately predicted this fact
or, but that most of the variance in evaluation remained unexplained
by ATL. Furthermore, approaches to learning accounted for a substantial
amount of the students own prediction of their forthcoming academic
achievement. As the results from the forthcoming exam will soon
be available, it will be possible to present the relative contributions
of evaluation and ATL as predictors of actual academic achievement.
--------------------
Successful results when international
administrators, teachers, students, and teacher trainers, correctly
implement learning styles into the classroom culture: Its a road
map to reach your goals effectively
Laura Shea Doolan, St Joseph's College, Brooklyn, New York
This investigator conducted a historical analysis of the International
Learning Styles Network (ILSN) and its impact on instructional innovation.
Data were analyzed to: describe how this Network evolved; decipher
whether the ILSN had evidenced an impact on instructional innovation;
and develop a model and guidelines that could assist in the formation
of future networks. This study focused extensively on this Network
and included nine research areas one of which is the current focus
for this document--the secondary sources responses. Data from: primary
sources--the directors of the 21 ILSN Centers, whose Centers were
located on the continents of Asia, Australia, Europe, and North
America--; secondary-sources--two former representatives of the
National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP), one
ILSN Board member, and 87 participants representing school administrators,
professors, teachers, and students directly involved with those
Network Centers were examined. This research focuses on the 6 multi-site
interviews with the 87 secondary sources. These participants from
rural, suburban, and urban schools, private and public institutions
and kindergarten through higher education levels, represented administrators,
higher education professors, learning-style teachers, teacher trainers,
elementary, high school, and higher education students, board members,
and other education stakeholders--all of whom were involved with
the Network Directors. A qualitative design using historiography
was the cornerstone of this study. Interviews, in conjunction with
audio taped transcripts, contact summary sheets, field notes, document
analyses, observations, and photographs achieved triangulation.
These multiple data established the study s validity. These interviewees
revealed the main factor for the participants involvement with learning-styles
and the ILSN s mission was that they believed this perspective was
crucial in the fostering of learners positive academic and work
performances. These subjects supported the construct, lauded the
correct implementation of a learning-styles approach, and corroborated
positive effects on teachers instructional goals and learners performances,
which led to the self-efficacy of both pupils and educators. How
the participants implemented--operationalized--the construct into
the education setting varied. Successes and various obstacles also
were reported to assist others who may implement learning-style
strategies into their teaching repertoire. Data also revealed specific
causes that led to these participants continued implementation of
this construct, such as the St. John s Annual Leadership Certification
Institute in New York. The interviewees revealed that this Institute
was important because it brought together a cadre of individuals
from different states and countries that supported and validated
these educators undertakings. Thus, it allowed for networking and
the building of professional relationships that led to a mutually
constructive and enhancing organization. Findings extrapolated from
these data led to the development of a model depicting the evolution
and effect of the ILSN mission on teachers and students self-efficacy.
This model may be replicated by all other education stakeholders
who seek education reform.
--------------------
Identification of appropriate aspects
of a 30 question RASI to be included in a Motivational Interview
booklet
Tim Duffy, Elizabeth Boyle and Karen Dunleavy, University of Paisley
A wide range of assessment tools exist. These are frequently used
to identify students learning styles and approaches to study. Most
of these assessment tools have been evaluated in terms of their
reliability and validity. Some studies also evaluate their ability
to predict academic outcome. Student motivation is also discussed
in the literature and some assessment tools attempt to assess this
area. Motivation may be influenced by both external and internal
factors. Therefore it may be possible to have an external influence
on a student’s motivation to study. Motivational Interviewing
is a technique used to nudge people towards change. It is applied
with people with problems relating to alcohol, drugs, and tobacco
use to influence such behaviours externally. This technique has
been shown to be effective in changing a wide range of behaviours.
Such a technique may also be useful in improving student’s
approaches to learning. A series of pilot studies are currently
in place to identify if the Learning Styles Questionnaire, Assist
and RASI are effective measurement tools in relation to learning
styles and approaches to study. Appropriate elements of some of
the above measurement tools will be incorporated into a “Motivational
Interview” approach. A Motivational Interviewing booklet will
then be prepared and offered to students with a view to assisting
them improve their approach to study. The impact of the Motivational
Interview intervention will then be evaluated (with campus and distance
learning students) to identify if it can assist students in improving
their approach to learning. Following the pilot studies, appropriate
elements of some of the above questionnaires will be incorporated
where there are high reliability, validity and predictor values.
To allow the Motivational Interviewing booklet to be brief, brevity
of questionnaires will also be a factor in the selection process.
This particular study focuses on the RASI questionnaire. This questionnaire
was completed by 373 students in the Faculty of Health and Social
Sciences at the University of Paisley. Results will be presented
which indicate the reliability and validity of main scale and sub-scales.
Their predictive value will also be considered. Based on this study,
consideration will be given to incorporating both the Deep and the
Strategic main scales from the RASI into the “Motivational
Interview” booklet. (In an earlier paper reviewing the ASSIST,
these scales also rated well, although are considerably longer).
An outline of the implications for further research in this area
will be provided.
--------------------
Exploring the relationship between cognitive
style and teaching style
Carol Evans, University of Durham
To a greater extent the nature of the relationship between the
cognitive style of a student teacher and their predominant teaching
style in the classroom has been ignored by educational research.
Using an opportunist sample of 84 student teachers (n: m = 23, f
= 61) studying for a one year full time Post Graduate Certificate
in Education in a range of subject specialist areas (Geography,
Classics, Science, Physical Education, Modern Foreign Languages,
Mathematics and Religious Education), based at a single English
university. The age of the students ranged from 20 to 48 years.
In order to determine their preferred cognitive styles, 55 of the
student teachers completed a computerised version of Riding's 'Cognitive
Styles Analysis' (1991). Consequently, on the basis of their more
extreme cognitive styles, 25 of the students were selected to participate
in semi-structured interviews. Of the subject specialist mentors
assigned to each student, 77% (n = 59) completed a questionnaire
on their perceptions of the teaching style of their PGCE student.
Statistically significant differences in approaches to learning
and teaching were identified. Using a two-way between-groups ANOVA,
main effects for gender and cognitive style were found, with male
wholist-imagers demonstrating the most wholist approach in the classroom
and analytic-verbaliser females displaying the most analytic teaching
style. Using Pearson product-moment correlation and t tests, verbalisers
were identified as adopting a more analytic approach in the classroom
compared to imagers and in terms of gender differences, females
were observed to adopt a more analytic approach in the classroom
compared to males. The qualitative analysis identified differences
in approaches to teaching between the students with 'more extreme'
cognitive styles. Wholists were more sensitive than analytic students
to situational factors such as the culture of the school, support
from the mentor and the ability to accept criticism. Further research
is recommended to verify such findings amongst the student teachers
presenting a continuum of cognitive styles. In this respect, a longitudinal
study focusing on changes in cognitive style and approach in the
classroom could be fruitful. Within the extreme cognitive styles
group, the students' attitudes to teaching reflected their cognitive
style. However, their teaching generally mirrored the way in which
they were taught in school and at university. Consequently, universities
need to adopt teaching and assessment tools that are increasingly
varied in order to accommodate the continuum of cognitive styles.
--------------------
What Do Language Learners Want from CALL?
Emotional Stimulus as a Key to Academic Achievement
Faina Furman, University of Haifa, Israel
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is an integral part
of our Academic English Reading Comprehension courses at the University
of Haifa. In addition to traditional frontal classroom instruction
and whole-class visits to the CALL Center, many students come to
the Center to work on our in-house produced courseware and on-line
resources in their free time, at their own pace. The relevance of
in-house produced courseware to the course material enhances motivation,
while variety of activities and their flexibility attend to different
learning styles and cultural backgrounds. Although learning styles
are relatively stable and vary from individual to individual, there
are many attributes which are common to all learners as human beings.
The learner reacts to educational stimuli and his/her “emotional
reactions… vary with situations and experiences” (Dunn
& Dunn, 1999, p. 13) and, according to Miller (1991), affect cognitive
development. It is now understood that a wide range of emotions
plays a critical role in every computer-related goal-directed activity
(Brave & Nass, 2003, p. 82). Our approach to CALL courseware design
is based on the view that computer is not a tool or strictly a tutor,
but rather an intellectual partner, a collaborator. As Reeves and
Nass (1996) have shown, the computer is very much a social medium,
and the more the computer program conforms to the norms of social
behavior, the more effective and enjoyable the learning! Thus when
our computer courseware “smiles” and “frowns”,
“thinks” and “teases”, encourages curiosity
or soothes in cases of frustration, it ignites students’ emotional
reactions and becomes a peer in the knowledge quest. Indeed, students
usually personalize the computer in their feedback on their work
in the Center. This paper will discuss four elements of the emotional
stimulus – motivation, persistence, responsibility, structure
(Dunn & Dunn, 1999) – and their application to EFL courseware
design. Courseware attributes appreciated by our students and considered
conducive to successful learning will be illustrated by sample screenshots
accompanied with student comments drawn from over 4,000 self-report
slips, which students filled in when visiting our Center for self-access
work during the past two academic years (fall 2000 – spring
2002). References: 1. Brave, S., & Nass, C. (2003). Emotion in human-computer
interaction. In J.A. Jacko & A. Sears (Eds.) The human-computer
interaction handbook: fundamentals, evolving technologies, and emerging
applications. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 2. Dunn,
R., & Dunn, K. (1999) The Complete Guide to the Leaning Styles Inservice
System. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. 3. Miller, A. (1991) Personality
Types, Learning Styles and Educational Goals. Educational Psychology,
11 (3-4), 217-238. 4. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. The media equation:
how people treat computers, televisions, and new media as real people
and places. Stanford, Calif.: Center for the Study of Language and
Information.
--------------------
A Comparative Analysis of the Learning
Styles of Adolescents from Eight Nations by Age, Gender, and Academic
Achievement Level
Heide Hlawaty, Georgia College & State University
This research examined the LS differences and similarities of approximately
4,300 adolescents from eight countries--Bermuda, Brazil, Brunei,
Germany, Hungary, New Zealand, Russia, and Sweden. Participants
for this investigation consisted of 13-, 15-, and 17-year-old students
attending urban, suburban, and rural schools in eight countries
located on five different continents. Students attended grades 7
through 13, depending on the local school system in their country
of origin. Males and females were represented in approximately equivalent
numbers. The appropriate language version of the Learning Style
Inventory (LSI) (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1996-2001) for Grades 5-12
identified each student's learning styles (LS). Students LS were
significantly differentiated among adolescents by age, gender, and
academic achievement within each country and internationally. Means
and standard deviations were calculated for the descriptive statistics.
Inferential statistics were established by univariate analyses of
variance (ANOVAs), t-tests, multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs)
and Tamahane s T2 and Dunnett-C post-hoc tests. Discriminant analyses
were conducted for the complete set of data. The level of statistical
significance was set at an < 0.05, although Bonferroni
adjustments for inflation of the Type I error rate were made to
an < 0.002. Eta-squares (η2) were reported as effect
sizes to determine the magnitude of the results regardless of sample
size. Eighteen of the 22 elements were differentiated significantly
among the complete eight-country sample by age. Gender differentiated
by 7 of the 22 elements, and achievement differentiated by 12 of
the 22 elements. Three significant two-way interactions were found
for overall learning-style preferences with age-by-country, gender-by-country,
and achievement-by-country, as well as one significant three-way
interaction of age-by-gender-by-country. These findings corroborated
previous research by Milgram, Dunn, and Price (1993), Honigsfeld
(2001), Ingham, Ponce Meza, & Price (1998), and Pengiran-Jadid (1998).
These findings suggest that only preparing lessons based on subject
content, students grade levels, or teacher-selected instructional
approaches is inappropriate and likely to be ineffective. Instead,
teachers should develop lesson plans that respond to students learning
styles as influenced by their gender, age, and achievement.
--------------------
Learning Styles in Teacher Education
Andrea Honigsfeld & Marjorie Schiering, Molloy College
The goal of this paper is to present the preliminary findings of
a new research project on teacher candidates learning-style preferences
and the implications thereof for their teaching styles. This research
project is an outgrowth of various learning experiences provided
by the researchers in their graduate education courses entitled
Meeting the needs of culturally diverse students in the inclusive
classroom, Interdisciplinary childhood and middle school teaching
methods for diverse learners, and Integrated language arts and reading
for the inclusive classroom of diverse learners. The researchers
utilized two different learning-style assessment instruments based
on the Dunn and Dunn Learning-Styles Model the Productivity Environmental
Preference Survey (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1997) and the Building Excellence
Survey (Dunn & Rundle, 2001)--one paper and pencil and one online
learning-style assessment instrument to identify course participants
learning styles. Within the same institution of higher education,
the learning-style concept is introduced and operationalized in
two different ways: In one course it is utilized as a catalyst to
discover dimensions of cultural diversity and to explore diversity
concepts including stereotyping and bias. It is also viewed as a
tool to empower all learners: teachers and their students as well
through differentiation of instruction. In two other courses, teacher
candidates align their course assignments with New York State, National
and Inclusion Classroom learning standards for knowledge, skills
and dispositions that provide interdisciplinary instructional strategies
that are interactive and address varied cognitive and learning styles.
Following professor modeling, the candidates practice learning-style-responsive
methods respective of processing style and learning style preferences,
as well as how to identify these in future/present students. Using
a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches, teacher
candidates individual and group learning-style profiles and their
reflections on their own learning and teaching styles will also
be discussed.
--------------------
Learning to an Entrepreneur in China
Pam Jackson, Queensland University of Technology
Learning to be an entrepreneur has been a topic of research and
debate for decades. Learning to become an entrepreneur in China
has become part of this since the emergence of private enterprise.
The business owners in China are asked to make business decisions
in a transitional economy with very diverse knowledge of the information
they receive. How do they learn to become entrepreneurs? This paper
will firstly explore the literature of learning for business owners
and mangers in China. Secondly the paper will isolate some of the
gaps in the literature where business owners and managers are learning
to make decisions. The discussion will then aim to explore the various
models of learning available to this market, given the political
and social environment in which they operate. A model of learning
for entrepreneurs in this country will be presented and finally
recommendations are provided where further research will empirically
test the model.
--------------------
Developing a Learning Community as part
of the Teaching Training Process
Sara Cleeman, Oranim Academic College of Teacher Education, Israel
The term “learning community” has appeared recently
within contexts such as distance learning, teamwork and problem-solving
processes, etc. An attempt to develop a community of teachers and
student teachers will be described here that will investigate and
deal with the problems involved in implementing collaborative learning
in schools and kindergartens. Pre- and in-service teachers participated
in this research within the framework of their studies for a B.Ed.
degree in Oranim School of Education. A course on collaborative
learning strategies was provided, involveing the study of different
types of learning. The objectives of the course were: a. To structure
collaborative learning principles. b. To develop a learning process
based on these principles. c. To locate interesting issues arising
during the process and structure ways of coping. d. To develop an
active learning community of students aware of group processes.
The course helped develop learning communities and ensure continuity
in their work. Summary The process of developing a learning community
of teachers involved several stages: A. Introduction Getting acquainted
with the participants, being exposed to the subject and becoming
familiar with the key concepts through group activity, while implementing
collaborative learning techniques. The principles and key concepts
were elucidated by analysing and reflecting on the activity, confronting
existing knowledge with new knowledge, and observing different locations
outside Oranim. The objective of this stage is to create a basis
for joint knowledge and uniform terminology to facilitate collaborative
dialog in the future. B. Experiencing Collaborative Activity, Creating
Contexts and Defining Problems While gaining experience, questions
were asked such as: What are the conditions for developing collaboration?
What are the characteristics of a group product, the evaluation
of a group product, personal contributions, etc.? During this stage,
the participants worked within the formal classroom and lessons
framework. C. Organisation in Learning Communities From their activities
and previous experience both as teachers and students, the participants
formulated study problems and questions. The instructor taught various
tools to report on the group’s progress, which helped in their
reflection about their work, in thinking and in future planning.
D. Experience Using Research Tools The course participants were
pre- and in-service teachers who, during their training and professional
development, dealt more with practice than with research. In preparing
for the learning community study, they practiced formulating open,
challenging, rich, authentic and relevant study questions based
on the availability of learning sources, gained experience in raising
assumptions and preliminary hypotheses, locating information sources,
choosing research and learning tools, defining short- and long-term
tasks, and dividing tasks among the group members. They also practiced
using research tools – observations, interviews and questionnaires.
E. Organising and Unifying Information The personal contributions
of the research groups were examined, and generalisations and new
insights were made. F. Presentation of the Study and its Findings
The study groups discussed the questions of “what” and
“how” to present the study findings and the process.
Outcomes A great deal may be learned from the interesting dynamics
that took place in the study on learning communities: members who
left the group, new members, power struggles, enthusiasm among some/anguish
among others, leading as opposed to following, etc. Within the structured,
and to a great extent obligatory, course framework, freedom was
given to the communities to act according to the group planning.
In parallel to learning about the problem lying at the crux of the
study, the participants received guidelines and tools reflectively
testing the group and individual processes that took place in their
community. The emotional involvement made it difficult for many
to examine what was going in the eyes of the objective researcher.
Those who succeeded in doing so and in transferring their experience
to their classes enriched their understanding, and their learning
was more significant. The outcomes were presented by visual presentations,
dramatised segments, video clips, a questionnaire for the audience,
a lecture accompanied by slides and a “homiletic picture”
for identifying collaborative situations.
--------------------
Using a learning styles approach to improve
learning, achievement and retention in further education
Cynthia Klein, South Bank University
The paper presents the findings of a two year pilot project using
the Dunn & Dunn model and learning style profiles as a basis for
implementing a learning styles approach to teaching and learning.
The aim was to study the effectiveness of adapting the learning
environment and teaching and learning strategies to address significant
learning style elements in individuals and groups. We wanted to
find out whether such an approach would improve learning, achievement,
retention and student participation, with particular reference to
low achievers. We trained course tutors in using the Dunn & Dunn
model and learning style instrument (Productivity Environmental
Preference Survey [PEPS]). They then gave the PEPS to their students.
We supported the teachers in identifying and implementing teaching
and other strategies based on their students individual and group
learning style profiles. The paper discusses both quantitative and
qualitative findings; these are based on the PEPS profiles, student
and teacher questionnaires, a basic skills task and college attendance,
achievement and retention data along with classroom observations
and interviews with students and teachers. The project took place
in three Inner London further education colleges, with two Inner
London colleges as comparison colleges , to provide similar contexts
where a variety of teaching and learning approaches might be used,
but not systematically embedding a learning styles approach based
on the Dunn & Dunn model. We worked with two GNVQ Intermediate courses:
Health and Social Care and Business. Across the three colleges,
nine groups of students participated in the initial year of the
project: in the second year, this was reduced to seven groups, three
business and four health and social care. Two groups, one in Health
and Social Care and one in Business, were specifically for ESOL
students. Our findings suggest that adopting a learning styles approach
using the Dunn & Dunn model and instrument (PEPS) can help improve
teaching and learning and can contribute to better achievement,
as well as improving student enjoyment and confidence. They also
point the way to future research. A qualitative analysis of data
from observations and interviews with individual teachers and students
showed a positive impact on both behaviour and learning. Though
findings from such a small number are tentative, it appears that
when teachers respond to students individual learning style, it
improves enjoyment, attention and active participation, and learning
for individual students. For teachers, use of the Dunn & Dunn model
supported reflective practice, provided insights which improved
classroom management and enhanced teachers relationships with students.
The paper raises some of the questions which came out of the research
and discusses the implications for post-16 education. We will also
present examples of effective interventions, changes in practice
and materials developed in response to individuals and group learning
styles profiles
--------------------
Individual Differences in Learning Achievements: The Relations
between Cognitive Style and Memory Capacity
Heling Huai, University Duisburg-Essen & Piet Kommers, University
of Twente
This study explores the differences in learning achievements respect
to knowledge dimensions among individuals with different cognitive
styles. It further investigated the relations between cognitive
style and memory capacity. The cognitive dimension used in the present
study is Pask's serialist versus holist dimension. The learning
achievement is measured by the examination score. The current study
found that there are differences in learning results among different
cognitive style students with respect to language and mathematics
dimension. Concerning memory effects, individual differences exist
as well.
--------------------
An international and cross-cultural study
of learning style preferences of entrants to hospitality and tourism
management programmes
Conrad Lashley, Nottingham Trent Business School & Paul Barron,
University of Queensland
This proposal involves research on the preferred learning style
of new entrants to degree programmes in the United Kingdom and in
Australia. The research provides insights into the similarities
and differences in learning style preferences of first year students
on hospitality management programme using an adapted version of
the Learning Styles Questionnaire (Honey and Mumford, 1986). For
all its flaws and lack of conceptual rigour, the LSQ has been found
to be a useful instrument for developing both students on management
programmes and practising managers on workplace development schemes.
At a fundamental level both authors working on two continents have
found that the LSQ provides a valuable aid to discussion and critical
evaluation of personal approaches to learning. Earlier work published
by one of the authors suggest that LSQ has a role to play in developing
more rounded approaches to learning consistent with reflective practice
amongst students who are primarily 'Activist' learners. The paper
brings together insights from new entrants onto these programmes
from the UK and Australia. In the latter case, findings suggest
that there are some interesting differences between those from occidental
Australia backgrounds and those with oriental origins from a number
of Far East countries studying in Australia on hospitality management
courses.
--------------------
Cultural diversity & the exhibition of
organisational citizenship behaviours
Waheeda Lillevik, McMaster University
Finding and nurturing talent in organizations has proved to be
a difficult and unique task for many firms. Because of the interactional
and accountable nature of many emerging jobs, especially managerial
positions, organizations are creating and using competency models
which outline specific behaviours that are considered to contribute
to and enhance job effectiveness. With the decline of the manufacturing
sector and the shift toward a knowledge economy, many organizations
have used competency modeling as a way to assess many jobs at various
levels and with various responsibilities. Competencies are often
used for selection, development and performance assessment in organizations.
Since task performance often does not adequately measure the performance
of managers, some of the behaviours outlined in competency models
can be linked to what has been identified as organizational citizenship
behaviours (OCB). However, although the exhibition of OCB?s has
been found to improve job performance, organizations may not be
taking into account individual differences in the type and frequency
of OCB?s displayed with respect to culture. With the globalization
of the world economy and the increasing mobility of people around
the world, a diverse workforce is becoming a non-avoidable issue;
this is particularly important in Canada, where multiculturalism
is embraced and government policies are enforced in order to ensure
that the Canadian workforce is representative of its population
in terms of race, ethnicity and sex. In this paper, I propose that
individuals from some cultural backgrounds may inhibit their exhibition
of OCB?s, and thus the use of competencies in selection, assessment
and training and development methods where they are not deemed as
essential behaviours to the job may facilitate discriminatory practices.
I also include a model that shows the proposed relationship between
cultural differences and OCB?s, and the mediating factors that may
affect that relationship.
--------------------
Workforce Diversity and Innovation: A
Working Model for Today?s Business Environment
Waheeda Lillevik, McMaster University
The constantly increasing global and national diversity within
the workforce can provide a rich forum for new and different perspectives
that can contribute to how corporations compete successfully within
their business environments. Current Canadian demographic statistics
indicate that a significant portion of the population does not have
British, French, or Canadian origins; thus workforce diversity is
a reality in many organizations today. This mix of multicultural
citizens is not unique to Canada alone; many other industrialized
nations face diverse populations. To compete at both local and global
levels, simply ensuring that people from many different cultures
are represented in the workforce is a good start, but it is not
enough; the differing views, attitudes, beliefs, experiences and
perceptions of people from diverse backgrounds must be encouraged
and channeled to produce new and innovative ideas in the ever-changing
knowledge economy. Through this discussion it is evident that the
goals of workforce diversity and nurturing an innovation culture
are congruent with one another. An environment of learning and tolerance
must be balanced with a need for focus and productivity in order
to foster innovation and gain competitive advantage in the marketplace.
This environment can be found in organizations where workforce diversity
is valued and embraced. To truly benefit from the diversity of our
workforce and to realize these gains in creativity and innovation,
however, we must go beyond simple numerical representation; we need
to promote a learning culture and emphasize ?inclusiveness? within
our organizations. This paper discusses the challenges and opportunities
that workforce diversity offers toward the stimulation of creativity
and innovation in the new business environment. Guidelines for facilitating
an environment that embraces multiple cultures and encourages diverse
thinking are provided, future issues with regard to workforce composition
are outlined, and a model of diversity and innovation is outlined.
--------------------
Critical Thinking-creative thinking-multiple
intelligence:A cycle in the learning process
Georgia Mega, University of Crete
The present article argues about how the child s critical thinking,
creative thinking and multiple intelligence may affect the learning
process. In the introduction of the article, reference is made to
the prevailing definitions both of creative and critical thinking,
Robert Ennis (1986), Mifflin (1994), so as to determine their characteristics
and point out any differences. Reference is made to the 7 types
of intelligence (Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Two personal,
Spatial, Musical, bodily - kinesthetic) as mentioned in H. Gardner
s (1993) theory of multiple intelligence. Then an attempt is made
to link these three characteristics of thinking (creative critical
multiple) in the context of the educational act. Therefore, the
main part of the article presents a model teaching method implemented
in a primary school in Athens (College of Athens, Primary Department)
during April 2003, among twenty-five ten-year old children. The
aim of the article is to make the reader understand how these three
forms of thinking are combined when the child is facing a problem
seeking solution. The model teaching method was used in the context
of Environmental Study subject. The theme was to construct a bridge
using only a packet of newspapers. The children approached the theme
collectively. They even split in seven groups depending on their
performance in specific learning fields, so as to highlight the
type of intelligence to which they mostly belonged (Literature,
Mathematics, Social life Inter-personal, Intra-personal relations,
Music, Painting, Dance). The model teaching includes: - the goals
and the objectives of the teaching procedure, - the introductory
activities, and - the design implementation activities. - the assessment
of the implementation activities. The procedure of assessment, is
one of the most important parts of this article. It includes the
description of the strategy used by each group in order to achieve
the goal (i.e. the construction of the bridge), and the differences
observed among the seven final products (bridges) created by each
group. The study of my observations on the working groups in connection
with the final product of their work, brought to the surface some
interesting conclusions. In the third part of this article the conclusions
are commented upon in detail. These comments point to a possible
connection between critical thinking and multiple intelligence and
between creative thinking and multiple intelligence.
--------------------
Cognitive style, dyslexia and mode of
instruction in higher education.
Tilly Mortimer, University of Cardiff
Contents: This research project examines the relationship between
dyslexia and learning style in male university students and investigates
the extent to which different ways of presenting information might
affect the levels of success experienced at a typical university
lecture task. Its focus is to determine the impact dyslexia, cognitive
style and mode of presentation might have upon success levels and,
through the use of questionnaire and interviews, their effect upon
the quality, positive or negative, of the student's learning experiences
at university. Research Questions The study posed the following
questions: 1. Is dyslexia associated with a predominant cognitive
style? 2. Is variation in cognitive style associated with differences
in the ability to assimilate information from the lecture form of
presentation? Is the pattern equivalent for students with and without
dyslexia? 3. What is the relationship between the way in which information
is presented and the successful comprehension and retention of that
information? How does cognitive style and dyslexia impact upon this
relationship? 4. What are the implications of the findings for teaching
and support practices in higher education? Methodology Sixty dyslexic
and sixty non-dyslexic male students were recruited from fourteen
HE institutions. They were selected from a wide range of disciplines
and care was taken to match the spread of ages and subjects across
the dyslexic and non-dyslexic groups. Cognitive style was measured
by the Cognitive Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991); the students watched
a short videoed lecture presented with or without graphic reinforcers;
students filled out and discussed a questionnaire as to learning
experiences and preferences and completed a task booklet testing
their recall of the lecture information. Students discussed the
implications of the result of the Cognitive Style Analysis for their
approaches to study at University. Results and Discussion Results
of the students' performances on the test and the questionnaire
responses are presented. The implications of the results for teaching
and support procedures are discussed.
--------------------
A Level subject choice as a predictor
of cognitive style
Andrew Roberts, University of Cardiff
In his book, Contrary Imaginations, Liam Hudson, suggested that
a measure of cognitive style could be inferred from a student s
performance on standard intelligence tests. Rather than focusing
upon the attainment levels of the tests, Hudson looked at the student
s relative performance on test items that required open ended responses
compared to those that required a single, correct response. He proposed
that this bias of IQ would indicate whether a student could be classified
as having a divergent or convergent cognitive style. Furthermore,
Hudson discovered a strong relationship between his measure of cognitive
style and subject choice during later learning with divergent students
tending to study arts based subjects and convergent subjects tending
to follow scientific careers. Given this background it may be possible
to hypothesise that a student s choice of subjects of study may
form an indicator of their cognitive style. Using a student s GCE
Advanced Level results, it is possible to derive a figure that indicates
the extent of an individual s bias between the arts and science
which can be compared with other measures of cognitive style and
also with indicators of student performance at degree level. Recent
reports in the UK media have suggested that raw A-level scores may
be insufficient indicators of a student s future performance and
that university admissions tutors need to consider other factors
when making decisions to offer students places at their institutions.
These factors could include measures of cognitive style but there
are merits in being able to judge this without the need for students
to sit specialist tests. This paper describes some preliminary research
based upon the examination results of three cohorts of Architecture
Students. In higher education, Architecture Students are rarely
required to have previously studied any specific A level subject
and therefore the cohorts were likely to contain students from a
full range of subject backgrounds. The paper outlines how a measure
of Arts and Science bias was derived and compares the results with
students overall performance in their degree studies and also with
students cognitive style as measured by Richard Riding s Cognitive
Styles analysis. The results suggest that neither the overall A-level
scores, nor the arts-science bias provide good indicators of a student
s likely design performance. Furthermore, it appears that there
is little relationship between subject choice and performance at
A-level and cognitive style.
--------------------
Developing Teacher Sensitivity to Student
Learning Styles
Melodie Rosenfeld, Achva College of Education, Israel
It is widely agreed that teachers need to understand and address
student learning-differences (Sternberg & Zhang, 2001). This study
focuses on two related issues, which are far from being well-understood:
(1) how to design a process for developing such teacher sensitivity
to learning-differences and (2) how to identify when teachers, who
have undergone this process, have gained this sensitivity. Regarding
the first issue, what guiding principle should be used to design
a process for developing teacher sensitivity to learning-differences?
Regarding the second issue, how can we know when teachers, who have
undergone this process, have indeed undergone real change? Furthermore,
what model of teacher change might inform future staff development
in this area? Methodology The first researcher designed and taught
a year-long college course for pre- and in-service teachers on the
topic of learning differences. The guiding principle was for teachers
to investigate their own unique learning patterns within a group
context, based on a series of five learning-style inventories. Questionnaires
and individual interview data were collected from the 14 participating
teachers. In addition, the teachers submitted a total of 62 personal
incidents documenting the development of their sensitivity to themselves
and to other learners. These incidents were analyzed and they formed
the basis for a model which describes how the teachers developed
sensitivity to learning differences. Outcomes The participating
teachers underwent a common change process. Their investigations
of themselves as unique learners in a peer context led them to reframe
their own present and past learning experiences. As a result, they
were able to document how they saw themselves and other learners
differently. They used terms and concepts for repetitive patterns
of learning (learning and cognitive styles) which they had experienced
as learners, and they identified these patterns in others. When
they understood and legitimized their own learning differences,
they also understood and legitimized the learning differences of
others, including pupils, colleagues, and family members. The teachers’
deep personal understandings led to changes in their attitudes and
behavior toward themselves and others. In many instances, the teachers
reported that their newly-developed sensitivity to learner differences
led to positive changes in their pupils’attitudes and behavior.
Theoretical and Educational Significance It has been acknowledged
that in order to grow professionally, teachers need to understand
themselves (Kagan 1992) and "teacher learning ought not be bound
and delivered but rather activated" (Wilson & Berne, 1999, p. 194).
The learning-styles course supported the teachers in actively becoming
sensitive to their own unique and legitimate learning needs in relation
to their colleagues. As a result, the teachers transferred their
knowledge and became more sensitive to other learners' learning
differences. Thus, sensitizing teachers to their own learning differences
can be an important first step in sensitizing them to the learning
differences of other learners. Bibliography: Kagan, D. (1992). Professional
growth among preservice and beginning teachers. Review of Educational
Research, vol. 62 (2) 129-169. Sternberg, R. & Zhang, L.(2001).
Perspectives on thinking, learning and cognitive styles. New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wilson, S., & Berne, J. (1999). Teacher
learning and the acquisition of professional kowledge: an examination
of research on contemporary professional development. Chapter 6,
pp.173 -210 (in Iran-Nejad, A. & Pearson, P.D. eds., Review of Research
in Education. Wash. D.C.: AERA.
--------------------
Interactive Instructional Resources ProvidingTransformational
Cognitive And Metacognitive Developmet Across An Indiscriminate
Time Continum For Social Literacy And Academic Achievement
Marjorie Schiering, Molloy College, New York
This presentation addresses the implications and practical applications
of utilizing varied interactive instructional resources for the
purpose of enhanced academic achievement, cognitive and meta-cognitive
development, as well as social literacy applications across an interdisciplinary
and indiscriminate time continuum. The basic premise of students
ability to engage in transformational thought processes with respect
to their existing level of consciousness is examined for emergence
from basic cognitive awareness to critical and creative thinking
and then, self-actualization. This conceptualization is explored
through utilization of interactive learning stimuli that address
learning-style preferences of individuals. Differentiation of instruction
is emphasized with the comprehension of student-learner differences
in learning style applications for practical teaching/learning strategies.
Charts and tables are provided from an initial study, along with
charts depicting the construction of linkages between sequential
developmental and simultaneous thought processes that connect one's
experiential past to sensory-motor applications in the phenomenological
sense. Social reality and societal reality are examined with respect
to initial belief systems and the differences between thoughts,
ideas, opinions, judgments and feelings for expressive communication
techniques within the classroom setting. Additionally, concentrates
of the theory denoting initial belief systems with respect to the
sociology of the world (S.O.W.) and its equanimity to religion,
education, academics and politics (R.E.A.P.) (Schiering, 2001) will
be discussed as the author postulates that the instructional methods
operationalize and facilitate the student-learners' cognitive process,
by providing alternative means to lecture and singular modeling
of curriculum content. This will be presented for participants in
conjunction with a hands-on/how-to-construct application of one
tactile/kinesthetic learning resource.
--------------------
Learning style, academic performance,
and attributions and emotions for academic performance
Georgia Stephanou, Technological Educational Institution of Thessaloniki
This study, considering the importance attached to good performance,
aimed to investigate: (a) High school pupils attributions and emotions
for their perceived successful and unsuccessful school year performance
in Greek Literature, (b) the role of both attributions and intuitive
appraisal (perceived performance) on emotions for the perceived
performance, (c) the effects of students learning style on the formation
of both school year performance in Greek Literature and attributions
for the same performance. All of the pupils (n = 240, age 16 -17
years), at the beginning of the second school term, completed the
learning style scale, whereas, at the end of the school year, they
completed the scales of intuitive appraisal, attributions and emotions
for their school year performance in Greek Literature. The results
showed that: (a) Success was attributed to internal, personal controllable,
stable and external uncontrollable attributions, while failure was
attributed to external, personal uncontrollable, unstable and external
controllable causes, (b) the pupils experienced positive affects
for success, and negative affects for failure, (c) attribution -dependent
affects were predominantly influenced by attributions, whereas outcome-
dependent affects were mainly predicted by intuitive appraisal,
and (d) learning style (in particular, deep approach) was associated
with both attributions and, mainly, academic performance. The findings
are discussed in terms of practical implications in academic settings.
Keywords: Attributions, Emotions, Learning style.
--------------------
The influence of learning styles on the
acquisition of tacit knowledge in three content areas of public
sector management
Anis Mahmud, Steve Armstrong & Z. Zhu, University of Hull
Despite the huge investments made by organizations to equip their
managers with the necessary knowledge and skills to be efficient
and successful, it is often seen as more of an act of faith because
the actual results are not easy to measure. There is a body of literature
which suggests that most of what managers actually learn is on the
job and they do it through their own experience. Examples include
the theory of situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991), which emphasises
the interaction between individual learning, practice and every-day
work tasks, and the theory of communities of practice (Brown & Duguid,
1992; Wenger, 1999) which stresses the term community and social
relationships around the learner. Drawing on Polanyi s (1966) distinction
between explicit and tacit knowledge, the latter is often regarded
as being the most valuable for a successful managerial career (Wenger,
McDermott & Snyder, 2002). Literature also reveals that the content
and level of tacit knowledge differs between the typical and the
more successful managers. It follows, therefore, that if tacit knowledge
is acquired by learning from experience, then management development
providers need to reassess their role from being a provider of skills
and theory to being a facilitator in the acquisition of relevant
tacit knowledge. In order to enhance our understanding of the processes
involved, this study explores the possibility that learning styles
may play a significant role in determining the level of managerial
tacit knowledge acquired, as managers interact with their local
work environments. The broad thesis of the study is that: The level
of tacit knowledge acquired by public sector managers is influenced
by both their individual learning styles, and the degree to which
their dominant preferred learning styles are matched with the context
of their work environment. A mixed-method methodology is adopted
in order to investigate the relationship between learning styles
and the level of tacit knowledge acquired by managers in three content
areas of the public sector. For the quantitative element of the
study, Stenberg s Tacit Knowledge Inventory for Managers (TKIM)
and Kolb s learning styles inventory are used. The study is expected
to make two contributions. Firstly, to enhance our understanding
of the significance of learning styles to the development of managers,
and secondly, to inform management trainers of ways in which they
need to shift their role from knowledge providers to facilitators
of management learning.
--------------------
Thinking styles and social problem solving
Elizabeth Boyle, John MacDonald, Joy Aked, David Main & Karen
Dunleavy, University of Paisely
Research on styles is at the interface between research on personality
and research on intelligence. Consequently styles research has been
very diverse and has addressed many different aspects of individual
preferences in how people deploy their abilities. In trying to provide
a more comprehensive theory of thinking styles, Sternberg (1997)
proposed his theory of mental self-governance, which identified
differences along five dimensions in the way that people think about
issues in the real world and manage their everyday activities. Sternberg
developed a questionnaire to measure these differences. While there
is some evidence concerning the validity and reliability of Sternberg’s
questionnaire and differential links to different outcomes, there
has been less research examining links with other similar questionnaires.
While not explicitly addressing styles, another questionnaire which
addresses motivational and strategy differences in how people approach
real-world problems is Zurilla’s Social Problem Solving Inventory
(SPSI). The aim of the current study was to compare Sternberg’s
thinking styles inventory and Zurilla’s self-report measure
of social problem solving. Both of these questionnaires claim to
predict differences in attitudes to and strategies used in tackling
problems in the real world, which may lead to different adaptive
outcomes. The sample consisted of 118 Social Science undergraduates
who completed both the Sternberg-Wagner Thinking Styles Inventory
(TSI) and Zurilla’s Social Problem Solving Inventory (SPSI).
Preliminary analysis indicated weak correlations between both the
judicial and executive functions of Sternberg’s TSI and the
rational problem solving scale of the SPSI, which assesses strategies
used in problem solving. In addition, both the local and liberal
scales of the TSI were positively linked to positive problem orientation,
a motivational scale of the SPSI. Sternberg’s liberal scale
was also linked to two strategy subscales of the SPSI, generating
alternative solutions and solution implementation and verification.
These results suggest that there are some parallels between the
two questionnaires in the way that they examine motivations and
strategies used in tackling real world problems.
--------------------
The Value and Use of Learning Styles
in Developing Learning
John Clark, Gary Pheiffer, David Andrew, Debbie Hollie & Miriam
Green, London Metrpolitan University
This paper presents the both experiences via a case study and empirical
data in the use of learning styles. Learning Styles are widely used
in UK education and especially management education. However, the
question of reliability and validity still is an issue for those
working in the field as the 2002 ELSIN conference noted with it
theme of reliability and validity. This paper firstly examines the
psychometric features of two learning styles, the Kolb LSI and the
Rundle and Dunn Building Excellence model, using reliability analyses
and factor analysis. This builds on previous preliminary workby
the authors. The paper examines the reliability and validity of
the two instruments, and the focus is then on a critical examination
of the use of these instruments in dveloping learning. This develops
issues around their continued use in education and specifically
management education. This section also examines the issues of Learning
styles, Learning Strategies, Perceptions of Course Quality and individual
variables such as Self-efficacy, Locus of control, identity and
student engagement behaviour in relation to the issue of style.
The aim is to understand student learning and retention, to develop
strategies to deal with this issue, specifically in post 1992 universities
and how issues around style may or may not help in this process.
The paper does not deal only with the psychometric issues but presents
a case study in the use of learning styles in developing their use
through issues of engagement and identity.
--------------------
A Systematic Review of Learning Styles
and Pedagogy
F. Coffield, D. Mosely, K. Ecclestone, E. Hall, Newcastle University
This paper presents findings from a systematic review, funded by
the Learning and Skills Development Agency and carried out by a
team from Newcastle University. Searches identified 69 models of
learning styles (LS) which we grouped into six families and placed
on a continuum from LS as modifiable to fixed characteristics of
learners. We chose 12 models and their instruments to evaluate;
our criteria for selection were theoretical importance, widespread
use and influence. The six families and their representative model(s)
are listed below: 1. LS are largely constitutionally based Gregorc
2. LS reflect cognitive structure Riding 3. LS are part of a stable
personality type Myers-Briggs Jackson Apter 4. LS are stable learning
preferences Kolb Honey & Mumford Allinson & Hayes 5. Learning approaches
and strategies are the basis for understanding learning Entwistle
Vermunt Sternberg 6. LS consist of learning and environmental Dunn
& Dunn preferences We used the same evaluative criteria to review
the 12 models: reliability, validity, implications for pedagogy
and empirical evidence of impact on pedagogy. We found serious psychometric
weaknesses in many of these models. Only three of the 12 those of
Entwistle, Vermunt and Jackson met our criteria. In our judgement,
the other nine should not be used to justify changing practice.
Research into learning styles is characterised as small-scale, non-cumulative,
uncritical and inward-looking. There s been a proliferation of concepts
resulting in a large number of dichotomies, symptomatic of conceptual
confusion and of a serious failure of accumulated theoretical coherence.
Although learning style theorists warn of the dangers of labelling,
we found examples of theorists, practitioners and students referring
to globals and analytics and to low auditory, kinaesthetic learners
. The instruments present not only an individualised and decontextualised
view of learners, but also a depoliticised treatment of those differences
among learners which stem from social class and race. There is a
lack of research in the UK into learning styles and social class.
There is widespread disagreement about the advice to be offered
to teachers and a dearth of rigorously controlled experiments on
the claims of the main advocates. We end with positive recommendations
concerning the most psychometrically sound models, which could be
used to encourage self-development: by diagnosing how people learn
and showing them how to enhance their learning. They could also
provide learners with a language with which to discuss learning
preferences, how people learn, how they plan and monitor it and
how teachers can facilitate it. At present there are a variety of
competing vocabularies: we recommend one, particular vocabulary.
A dialogue could also act as a springboard for broader change within
organisations. Responding more appropriately to learning styles
may provoke a re-assessment of the goals of education. The case
for learning styles also has to compete with arguments from the
meta-analyses of Marzano (1998) and Hattie (1992) in favour of other
innovations eg formative assessment and metacognition.
--------------------
The Relationship between Learner Variables
and the Choice of Vocabulary Leraning Strategies
Shaindokht Goodarzi, Iran University of Science and Technology
For a long time language teaching was only concerned about teaching
methods and less attention was paid to the role of learner in learning
a foreign language. However, with the increased focus of second
language acquisition research on individual differences in language
learning and on learner-centered language education, language learning
strategies have been considered as an interesting topic warranting
much research. At the same time, vocabulary, once being neglected
as an aspect of language learning, has been much studied following
the advent of communicative approaches to teaching. Thus, the present
study investigates the following questions: a) is there any significance
relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and the level
of language proficiency of the Iranian EFL students? b) Is there
any relationship between the choice of vocabulary learning strategies
and learner variables such as age, occupation, years of studying
English, and beliefs about vocabulary learning? The participants
in the this research are 100 Iranian EFL students studying at a
language institute.
--------------------
Informing design of learning situations
through pedagogic research
Hilaire Graham & Caroline Abbey, University of Plymouth
This paper considers the impact of a research project that introduced
students to learning as an activity that they would engage in at
university and the concept of learning styles as a way of considering
how they learn. In particular, the use of learning styles and student
learning as a way of informing design of learning situations is
examined. Addressed problem The research project on learning styles
arose because of separate uses of learning style questionnaires
in three schools in the Faculty of Technology at the University
of Plymouth during 2001-2002. It was felt that a common approach
to the use of learning styles for Stage 1 students would be appropriate
and the research project endeavoured to develop this common approach.
The aim of the project was to increase students awareness of learning
as a skill that could be supported and developed. An expected outcome
of the project was to increase teachers awareness of their own learning
style and to consider the impact on their teaching. The project
required an approach that considered the various subject/discipline
requirements of learning situations and activities in the Faculty
of Technology. The project was supported by a Teaching and Learning
Development Grant from the University of Plymouth Education Development
Unit. Applied approach In the research project, the current use
of learning styles testing was reviewed, the range of learning styles
tests evaluated, the delivery mode considered, and a podule introducing
learning styles developed for use by academic staff with students.
The project was evaluated by staff and students in questionnaires
(Staff/students), a focus group (students) and a structured interview
(staff) Results The presented results focus on the implementation
of the podule (staff feedback) and its usefulness (student feedback).
The student response to concept of learning styles suggested that
they found knowledge of learning styles to be useful as they were
able to consider how they approached the range of learning situations.
Students were able to comment on the implementation of the podule
and the learning styles session. The focus group indicated that
students were keen to consider how their learning had developed
over the year. The impact of learning styles awareness on teaching
practice is considered in a case study (structured interview) that
uses the outcome of the research project to inform teaching practice.
The impact of learning styles awareness on teaching practice is
considered in a case study that uses the outcome of the research
project to Subsequent use Following evaluation of the project a
number of modifications are planned for re-use of the podule in
2003-2004. Of particular interest is the need to consider the development
of teaching in students learning situations.
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Young children --- Learning with Technologies
Christina Han, Hong Kong Institute of Education
Playing is the major part of young children’s life. Playing
with electronic toys and computer technologies is getting very common
in children’s daily life. Many of child care centers and kindergartens
are using more computer technologies as one of the learning and
teaching tools. What kinds of computer technologies that kindergartens
adopt for children’s uses? How do young children use technologies
for their learning? What strategies that kindergarten teachers apply
when use technologies with young children? All of the above questions
will be revealed in this study. This study has been done in the
Early Childhood Learning Centre in Hong Kong Institute of Education.
Observation has been done with a group of 4-5 years old children
when they are playing with computer during creative activity time.
Total number of the group is 20 young children. Videotape has been
used to record children’s strategies in using computer as
a learning tool. Analysis will be done according to children’s
language skills, social skills, thinking skills and problem solving
skills. In addition, there are suggestions regarding young children
learning with technologies for early childhood organizations, early
childhood educators and computer technologies developers.
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Cognitive style, organisational culture,
organisational learning and restructuring for a market economy:
New evidence from Polish industry
Jeanne Hill, University of Central Lancashire & Agnieszka Sitko-Lutek,
Marie Curie-Sklodowska University, Poland
As ELSIN members well know, research on learning and cognitive
styles covers a tremendous range of views, approaches and models
for observing and making sense of consistent differences in individual
thinking and cognitive processing. A great deal of this research
focuses on style and learning in the classroom. Much less research
addresses the issue of style in management, despite the fact that
the ability of managers to process and respond to ever-increasing
amounts of information is a key competence for managers in the 21st
century (Hodgkinson & Sadler-Smith, 2002). Further, there is very
little literature addressing the fit between occupational choice
and style, organisational culture and style, or organisational learning
and style. In this paper we report on new evidence from a study
of over 750 managers in a variety of Polish firms across 7 industries.
Managers were tested for their cognitive style (as measured by Allinson
& Hayes’1993 Cognitive Style Index), completed a comprehensive
questionnaire about the management and culture of their organisations,
and also provided information about their training and development
experience and preferences. The findings show significant differences
in managers' cognitive style between industry groups. The most extreme
differences appear between industries that have not yet undergone
restructuring from the old ‘Soviet’ model and those
in the new, more dynamic and technologically advanced sectors. We
also examine evidence of differences in organisational culture between
industries as related to cognitive style.
--------------------
Designing an On-line Learning & Creativity
Profile Generator: A Fusion of Learning Styles, Creativity Diagnostics
and LMS
Karl Jeffries & Glen Hardaker, University of Huddersfield
The need to embrace innovation and creativity is paramount for
future prosperity and sustaining competitiveness; this has been
identified by numerous sources including: the Design Council (2002),
DEMOS (Seltzer & Bentley, 1999) the Qualifications and Curriculum
Authority (Hargreaves, 2001; Boston, 2002), Confederation of British
Industry (2002) and Institute of Directors (2002). From such a basis
the question of how to train, foster or teach creativity comes to
the fore. The current paper presents a case for the introduction
of a specific software design approach that focuses on the interface
between learning and creativity through the application of online
adaptive learning content in the context of design education. Specifically,
the focus is on the development of a software application, ‘The
Learning and Creativity Profile Generator (LCPG)’, that has
been designed to operate both as a stand-alone piece of software
and in conjunction with adaptive learning management systems (LMS).
The paper in particular considers the role of on-line learning and
creativity diagnostics in supporting design education and the relationship
with the context of learning through intelligent tutoring software
applications (LMS, SCORM 1.2). The software design approach is based
on generating both a learning and creativity profile for each learner
that will be used in LMS solutions and/or by a mentor such as a
tutor or trainer. The specific aims of the profile generator are
directed at gaining a broader understanding of the user on a number
of levels concerning their ability to learn and be creative:
The learner’s general interests, attitudes and desires
The pre-attitudes the learner has to formal learning The
individual’s learning preferences and the implications for
teaching i.e. visual, auditory or kinaesthetic. The individual’s
cognitive learning style defined as ‘physically centred’,
‘emotionally centred’ and ‘mentally centred’.
The learner’s potential for creativity in the subject
area that is understood by exploring the learner’s creative
thinking skills, motivation and subject specific expertise. (Amabile,
1983, 1999) Furthermore, Sternberg (1997: 158) has argued:‘Styles
matter. Moreover, they are often confused with abilities, so that
students or others are thought to be incompetent not because they
are lacking in abilities, but because their styles of thinking do
not match those of the people doing the assessment. Especially in
teaching, we need to take into account students’ styles of
thinking if we hope to reach them’, a point reiterated by
others involved in learning styles research (Dunn, 2000). Whether
on matches or raises student awareness (Sadler-Smith, 2001; Riding
& Rayner, 1998), clearly there may be pedagogic benefits to integrating
learning styles with traditional creativity training. This paper
explores how one UK University has interpreted this aim within the
field of design education. In addition, we also discuss the development
of creativity diagnostic tools as a means to engaging students and
how such diagnostic tool may offer a framework for the exploration
of individualised learning paths.
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Management Learning: a comparison between
managers' perceptions of study progress and of career progress.
Bryan Jones, Dearne Valley Business School
Reports the design and findings of a pilot methodology into evaluating
management learning on an MBA in Yorkshire. Identifies, from a sample
of 25 questionnaires and 10 interviews, the significance of certain
learning barriers and learning exemplars. A questionnaire tests
two predictors, namely respondents’ self-perception of their
abilities in study progression and in career progression. These
are assessed against espoused learning attributes, split between
exemplars and barriers. The interview explores respondents’
views around their learning as managers and as students. In the
questionnaires, Pearson coefficients show very strong correlation
for learning exemplars: (0.85) between confidence, against results
and relationships; and (0.85) between understanding strategy, against
feedback and managing stress. For learning barriers, the highest
correlation (0.78) occurs against working in a blame culture. Factor
analysis by varimax rotation shows communalities for the learning
exemplars under interpersonal skills and a critical approach to
strategy. For barriers, groupings occur around an isolating culture
and conflicting personal agendas. On gender, and when considering
their study performance, regression analysis shows women’s
perceptions are more positive than those of men when based on learning
exemplars. In contrast, when based on learning barriers, men’s
perceptions are more positive than those of women. There are no
significant gender differences for perceptions of career progress.
Regression analysis shows potential for parsimonious refinement
of the questionnaire. The interviews indicate some preference for
learning aims namely: more clarity of learning intentions, leadership
skills and developing relationships with others. However the interviews
reflect varying articulation between respondents of the processes
required in achieving their respective aims. Recommendations are
made for further refining the research methods.
--------------------
Context and Choice in Learning to Change
in Healthcare
Vivien Martin, NHSU
Context and Choice in Learning to Change in Healthcare This paper
explores the contribution that learning makes to achieving change
in health and care services. There has been considerable change
in how healthcare services are organised and delivered in England.
Concerns are emerging about the extent to which staff and service
users are able to lead and engage in the fast pace and complex nature
of service development. Change involves people and their energy,
their enthusiasm, their values and their abilities to think and
to do things differently. Learning is at the heart of change. When
we learn we make a change in ourselves, we have the potential to
apply that new understanding to how we live and work. Learning is
therefore central to both personal and organisational change. People
approach learning in many different ways. Much of the focus of research
into learning styles has focused on individual choice without relating
choice to constraints or demands of the context. Personal preferences
or learning styles may shape a personal approach to learning, but
there are many other factors that contribute to the choices that
individuals make. A significant factor for those learning in a workplace
setting is the extent to which the individual s choices are constrained
by the workplace demands. Learning can lead to many different types
of change in individuals, influencing abilities, ways of thinking,
awareness of the nature of knowledge and awareness of differences
in perception. Learning might be evident in changes in the ways
people think and act, both as individuals and in the complex multiprofessional
and interdisciplinary settings of health and care services. Learning
can transform people and the deeply personal nature of transformational
learning has implications for those engaged in and leading transformational
change. Personal transformational learning is often a significant
experience for individuals who may feel vulnerable or lose confidence
if long-held beliefs are challenged. There are sometimes very difficult
issues to face when organisations embark on transformational change
with the expectation that members of staff will engage in the personal
learning journey that is necessary to create change. This paper
draws on theory that has informed approaches to adults as learners,
management and leadership development. The context of health and
social care service development includes many disciplines and professions,
many fields of study and fields of practice. Modernisation of services
puts a particular emphasis on the ways in which people from different
traditions work together and include service users in developing
responsive services. Little attention has been paid to the role
that learning must contribute to change. There is an opportunity
to review the contribution that a number of fields of study might
make to inform the emerging development of multiprofessional and
multidisciplinary fields of practice.
--------------------
"Questioning styles" and students learning:
four case studies
Helena Pedrosa de Jesus, University of Aveiro, Portugal
In this paper we are driven by the spirit of inquiry . We are principally
concerned with the personal, individual, manifestation of this spirit
as it appears through the questions that learners ask during the
course of their learning. In our previous work we have established
that some learners are more curiosity-driven than others: dependent
on such understandable factors as learning material, learning context
and mode of inquiry among others. In this paper we relate the capacity
of learners to generate and formulate questions to their dispositions
for learning: the learning styles they adopt, in this case, in the
learning of undergraduate chemistry. One of the intended outcomes
of this research is to explore aspects of the match-mismatch problem,
addressing the question as to whether to teach to students preferred
style of learning or not. There are benefits to be seen from working
within a learner s zone of maximal learning comfort . There are
also arguments for deliberately operating slightly away from this
zone: discomfiting, challenging and thereby extending students strategies
for learning. In this paper we build upon data we have collected
that spans two university semesters and a sample of some 300 students
- giving us the opportunity to distinguish between question-askers;
tally their question-asking and then to inventory their learning
styles. Here, we report on four of these students in some detail:
as a study of cases. Using Kolb s (1984) Learning Styles Inventory
we have drawn our cases one each from his categories of Accommodative,
Divergent, Assimilative and Convergent learning styles, and we illuminate
them by further data collected through both written and oral questions;
interviews, and observations of these students in different classroom
settings and undertaking different learning tasks. Our intention
is to unravel the interrogative basis for these students learning
through the quality and the quantity of questions they ask, the
nature of these questions and the extent to which the questions
are deliberative or spontaneous. Written questions are collected
through Question Boxes placed in each laboratory and classrooms
and through an intra-net system incorporating an e-mail correspondence
facility. Oral questions are logged through observation of classroom
and lecture sessions. These four cases allow us snapshots of how
particular learners shape questions, the ways in which these fit
with their orientations to learning, how this then drives their
learning and what teaching might best then ensue.
--------------------
Embedding Entrepreneurial Studies Across
the HE Curriculum: embracing independent learning, employability
and transferable skills
Kerry Wilson, Leeds Metropolitan University
Enterprise League Tables published in 2000 identified Yorkshire
and The Humber as poor regional performers in business start up,
with an average of 30 VAT registrations per 10,000 resident adult
populations in the year 1998 (HMT, 2000). Compared to the English
national average of 41 registrations, Yorkshire and the Humber was
the second lowest regional performer. The White Paper for Enterprise,
Skills and Innovation (DTI, 2002) determined a strategy for regional
improvement, including strategic roles for regional development
agencies and greater co-operation between business and universities.
As a proactive response to the regional poor performance in terms
of business start ups, ‘Business Start Up @ Leeds Met’
have a contractual agreement with the regional development agency
Yorkshire Forward, to provide educational provision to support,
develop and nurture entrepreneurial behaviour and start up potential
amongst students of Leeds Metropolitan University (LMU). LMU are
also working in partnership with Yorkshire Universities to embed
enterprise teaching and learning across the region. Further to the
Enterprise in Higher Education (EHE) programme, themes of enterprise
teaching and learning, and the pedagogical crises involved in the
implementation of entrepreneurial programmes have been extensively
covered by the literature. Gaps appear in practical application
of enterprise teaching and learning research, and of the pedagogical
knowledge obtained. Whilst conceptual models of entrepreneurial
learning are freely discussed, teaching and learning case studies
need to be developed in order to substantiate theoretical findings.
‘Business Start Up @ Leeds Met’ are committed to encouraging
business start up in the region by embedding entrepreneurial studies
across the Leeds Metropolitan University curriculum, embracing cross-disciplinary
enterprise, creativity and innovation by applying research findings
via a generic teaching and learning model. For entrepreneurial programmes
to be successful and sustainable, the relevant concepts of employability
and transferable skills need to be emphasised in terms of developing
enterprising, creative and innovative graduates. This paper builds
upon existing research to recommend an effective cross-disciplinary
enterprise teaching and learning strategy, which encourages creativity
and innovation by embracing independent learning, employability
and transferable skills. Research has been undertaken via a review
of the literature in to entrepreneurial teaching and learning methods,
models and concepts, and employability and key skills development
in higher education. Following qualitative focus group research
with a sample case study of ten academics at LMU, the purpose of
this paper is to recommend an effective cross-disciplinary enterprise
teaching and learning strategy, which places an emphasis on creativity
and innovation, and utilises generic teaching and learning methods
based on themes of independent study, employability and transferable
skills.
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Conceptions of learning and knowledge
in higher education: Relationships with study behaviour and influences
of learning environments
Elizabeth Peterson & Noel Entwistle, University of Edinburgh
Much of the research into powerful learning environments has looked
at the general influences on students’ engagement and learning,
but individual differences in reactions to such environments are
to be expected. This paper will reviewing the research on conceptions
of knowledge and learning, along with learning orientations and
consider how these concepts change the ways in which students view
aspects of their learning experience. At a more specific level,
researchers have also focused on the concepts and learning orientations
that influence study behaviour and in particular their affect on
students’ approaches to learning and the regulation of their
study strategies. While the initial research into the broader constructs
influencing learning used student interviews, two inventories [the
Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) and
Inventory of Learning Style (ILS)] have been developed which bring
together the broader and the more specific concepts and, in doing
so, allow statistical relationships between them to be examined.
Findings suggest a clear link between conceptions of learning and
study behaviour with developed conceptions being associated with
a personal interest in the subject matter along with a deep conceptual
understanding and self regulation. We conclude that while we now
have a clearer idea about how to design teaching-learning environments
that encourage a deep approach and conceptual understanding, the
research makes it clear that we still have to make allowance for
differences between students in how they react to the teaching they
experience. These findings are important especially when considering
how best to devise inclusive teaching-learning environments and
how best to bridge the gap between theory and practice.
--------------------
Entrepreneurship And Personality: A Case
For Methodological Reform
David Llewellyn, Leeds Metropolitan University
There are many alternative conceptualisations of entrepreneurship,
and it is important to appreciate the differences that may underlie
superficial semantic similarities. Contemporary personality theory
can be characterised by a shift towards a five-factor model of broad
traits (enduring aspects of individuality or temperament that are
stable over time), which are each comprised of a number of narrow
traits or facets. Personality traits are now thought of as components
of a multidimensional causal model that incorporates both biological
and social influences, and this can be contrasted with the more
narrow-minded approach adopted by classical trait theorists. Studies
which have investigated the relationship between entrepreneurship
and personality traits can generally be characterised by three main
weaknesses: A lack of conceptual and taxonomic clarity, the use
of psychometric measures with unknown or inadequate validity, and
the incorporation of small samples which are insufficient to achieve
acceptable statistical power. Despite these limitations it is clear
that entrepreneurship may be associated with the broad traits of
low neuroticism, agreeableness and conscientiousness, and high extraversion
and openness to experience. In addition the narrow traits of achievement
motivation, locus of control and risk taking also appear to be potentially
important. Recommendations for future research, policy and practice
are outlined.
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Cognitive style as a predictor of entrepreneurial
predilection
Andrew Hird and Steve Armstrong, University of Hull
Carland et al, (2001) suggest that cognitive style is a relatively
new, yet promising perspective of the entrepreneurial psych. Definitions
of cognitive style types and entrepreneurial types certainly display
interestingly similar characteristics such as greater impulsion,
open-mindedness and change orientation. This paper reports an empirical
study of the relationship between cognitive style and entrepreneurial
predilection, to investigate the possibility that cognitive style
may indeed be a component trait of the entrepreneurial personality.
A random sample of 504 entrepreneurs was drawn from the membership
of various chambers of commerce and business incubator sites from
the midland and northern regions of the UK. There were 131 useable
responses. A control group of non entrepreneurs also formed part
of the study. Cognitive style was measured using the cognitive styles
index (Allinson & Hayes, 1996), entrepreneurial drive by the Carland
entrepreneurial index (Carland et al, 2002), and entrepreneurial
predilection by self-developed items. Data were analysed by means
of a correlational analysis, t-tests and one-way analysis of variance.
Findings generally support the hypothesis that entrepreneurs tend
to be more intuitive and less analytic than non entrepreneurs. This
paper will present the results of the study, discuss its limitations,
and make recommendations for further research in the field.
--------------------
Success Factors of Ph.D. Research in
the Contemporary Environment:An Empirical Study
Nazmun Nahar, University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, Najmul Huda, Tallinn
Technical University, Estonia, and Prosenjit Singha Deo, Bose National
Centre for Basic Sciences, Calcutta.
This study explores which factors contribute to successful completion
of Ph.D. research by maintaining high quality in the contemporary
research environment. This research has been executed by: a) reviewing
literature in the fields of research supervision, Ph.D. supervision,
Ph.D. researchers, and a contemporary research environment; b) in-depth
interviewing of Ph.D. graduates, supervisors, and policy makers
of research institutes of different countries; and c) utilizing
both qualitative and quantitative data analysis techniques. This
study delivers a framework for the investigation of the success
factors related to Ph.D. theses completion in a contemporary environment.
This study contributes new knowledge to supervising Ph.D. theses
and conducting Ph.D. research. This study suggests implications
for Ph.D. supervisors, Ph.D. students, and research policy makers.
This study also suggests future research directions.
--------------------
Intuition: laying some ghosts to rest?
Eugene Sadler-Smith, University of Plymouth, UK.
This paper will begin by reviewing the literature on intuitive
information processing. It will then identify three common conceptions
relating to intuition, namely that: it, along with other facets
of style, is a 'right-brained' phenomenon; that it is the 'opposite
of analysis'; and that 'women are more intuitive than men'. By using
data gathered from a number of student and work-based samples the
paper will examine the: (a) Inter-relationships between the following
information processing styles: (i) local and global; (ii) a rational
and intuitive; (iii) verbal and visual. The assertion that specific
clusters comprising local, rational and verbal (left brained) and
global, intuitive and visual (right brained) each form distinct
groups will be examined empirically through factor analytical procedures;
(b) Relationships between rational and intuitive measures of information
processing. These will be explored to examine the extent to which
these two different facets of style inter-correlate and therefore
the extent to which each may be thought of as uni-polar constructs;
(c) Stereotype of female intuition. This will be explored by means
of sub-group comparisons. The paper aims to contribute to current
and on-going debates about the nature of intuition and the relationship
between intuition and other facets of style.
--------------------
The Case for Individualizing Teaching
Based on Cross-National Adolescents' Learning Styles
Heide Hlawaty, Georgia College & State University, Andrea Honigsfeld,
Molloy College, Tatyana Ulubabova, New York City Board of Education,
Rita Dunn and Ruth De Paula St. John's University, USA.
This manuscript challenges Teacher Educators to prepare prospective
teachers for teaching adolescents as diverse individuals rather
than as a group. This challenge is based on five comprehensive studies
with a combined population of 4,296 students from Bermuda, Brazil,
Brunei, Germany Hungary, New Zealand, and Russia (De Paula, 2002;
Hlawaty, 2002; Honigsfeld, 2001, 2002; Pengiran-Jadid, 1989; Ulubabova,
2003). Regardless of nation, individuals differed statistically
by their achievement levels, ages, and gender. These findings suggest
that only preparing lessons based on subject content, students'
grade levels, or teacher-selected instructional approaches is inappropriate
and likely to be ineffective. Instead, teachers should develop lesson
plans that respond to students' learning styles as influenced by
their gender, age, and achievement.
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